1

MEC 451
CHAPTER
Thermodynamics

6 Lecture Notes:
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor

Prepared By:
Dr Idris Saad Thermal Power Plants
Reviewed by
Dr. Alhassan Salami Tijani Part#1
Dr. Nor Afifah Yahaya

February – July 2020

Gas Turbine Engine
For students EM 220 and EM 221 only
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Chapter 6 – Thermal Power Plants

The Gas Turbine Engine
1. Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines.
2. Deviation of Actual Brayton Cycles from Idealized Ones
3. The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration.
4. The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating and Regeneration.

The Steam Turbine Engine

1. Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycle.
2. Deviation of Actual Rankine Cycles from Idealized Ones.
3. Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle
4. Reheating Rankine Cycle
5. Regenerative Rankine Cycle; Open Feedwater Heaters and Closed
Feedwater Heaters

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 2

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Introduction to Power Plants

• A power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted to electric power.
• Most power stations contain one or more generators, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into
electrical power.
• Types of power plants;
• Gas Turbine Power Plant – gas as a working fluids
• Steam Turbine Power Plant – working fluids changing phase from liquid to vapor
• Nuclear Power Plant – energy available from the nuclear
• Hydro-electric Power Plant – energy available from falling water
• Solar Power Plant – energy available from the solar
• Geo-thermal Power Plant – energy available in the Earth’s crust
• Tidal Power Plant – energy available from the tides
• Wind Power Plant – energy available from the wind turbines
• MEC451 covers Gas Power Plant and Steam Power Plant

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 3 3

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Gas-turbine Engines
• Gas turbine engines use for power production and generating trust for jet propulsion.
• Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines, i.e. smaller than their
reciprocating counterparts of the same power.
• The main disadvantage - compared to a reciprocating engine of the same size, they are expensive.
• Because they spin at such high speeds and because of the high operating temperatures, designing and manufacturing
gas turbines is a tough problem from both the engineering and materials standpoint.
• Gas turbines also tend to use more fuel when they are idling, and they prefer a constant rather than a fluctuating load.

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 4 4

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Gas Turbine Working Principle

• Gas turbine engines derive their power from burning fuel in a combustion chamber and using the fast flowing combustion
gases to drive a turbine.
• It is an internal type of combustion engine.
• It sucks in air from the atmosphere, compresses it.
• The fuel is injected and ignited.
• The gases expand doing work and finally exhausts outside.

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 5 5

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-turbine Engines

• The Brayton cycle (a.k.a. Joule cycle) is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas turbine engine.
• The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from an external source, and the
exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 6 6

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Brayton Cycle Process Description

Process Description Related formula
k WC ,in = H 2 − H1
Isentropic P1  V2  
k
T1  k −1
1-2 =   =    wc,in = h2 − h1 i.e. h = c pT
compression
wc,in = c p (T2 − T1 )
P2  V1   T2 

Constant
2-3 pressure heat Qin = m  c p (T3 − T2 ) = c  m f  CHV
addition
k WT ,out = H 3 − H 4
k
Isentropic P3  V4   T3  k −1 wT ,out = h3 − h4 i.e. h = c pT
3-4 =  =   
expansion P4  V3   T4  wT ,out = c p (T3 − T4 )

Constant
4-1 pressure heat Qout = m  c p (T4 − T1 )
rejection

Wnet Qout 1 P2
Thermal efficiency  th , Brayton = 
= 1th−, Brayton = 1 − ( k −1)/ k
rp =
P1
Qin Qin rp
MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 7 7
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Thermal Efficiency & Back Work Ratio

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton Part of the work output from turbine is used
cycle as a function of the pressure to drive the compressor, which in turn
ratio. requires a work input known as back work
ratio and can be written as;

Wc m c p (T2 − T1 ) (T2 − T1 )

rbw = = =
Wt m c p (T3 − T4 ) (T3 − T4 )


MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 8 8

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.1

Brayton Cycle
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the
compressor at 95 kPa, 22°C. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the
air leaves the heat addition process at 1100°C. Determine the
compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow, the
cycle efficiency and the back work ratio. Assume constant specific
heats at room temperature.

Solution

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 9 9

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.1 Brayton Cycle

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 10 10

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.1 Brayton Cycle

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 11 11

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.1 Brayton Cycle

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 12 12

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Practice Problem 6.1

1. A simple ideal Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid has a pressure ratio of 10. The air enters the compressor at 290 K and the
turbine at 1100 K. Using constant specific heats at room temperature, determine;
a) the air temperature at the compressor exit,
b) the back work ratio, and
c) the thermal efficiency.

2. An aircraft engine operates on a simple ideal Brayton cycle with a pressure ratio of 10. Heat is added to the cycle at a rate of 500 kW.
Air passes through the engine at a rate of 1 kg/s. The air at the beginning of the compression is at 70 kPa and 0°C. Determine the
power produced by this engine and its thermal efficiency. Use constant specific heats at room temperature.
[241.2 kW; 0.482]

3. A simple ideal Brayton cycle uses helium as the working fluid; operates with 83 kPa and 15°C at the compressor inlet; has a pressure
ratio of 14; and a maximum cycle temperature of 700°C. How much power will this cycle produce when the rate at which the helium is
circulated about the cycle is 50 kg/min? Use constant specific heats at room temperature.

4. A gas-turbine power plant operates on a modified Brayton cycle has one compressor and two turbine with an overall pressure ratio of 8.
Air enters the compressor at 0°C and 100 kPa. The maximum cycle temperature is 1500 K. The high pressure turbine develops just
enough power to run the compressor. Assume constant properties for air at 300 K;
a) Sketch the T-s diagram for the cycle. Label the data states.
b) Determine the temperature and pressure between the turbines. [1279 K; 457 kPa]
c) If the net power output is 200 MW, determine the mass flow rate of the air into the compressor, in kg/s. [442 kg/s]
MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 13 13
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

• Reasons: Irreversibilities
in turbine and
compressors, pressure
drops, heat losses, etc.
• Isentropic efficiencies of
the compressor and
turbine

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 14 14

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

Sample Problem 6.2
A simple Brayton cycle using air
as the working fluid with a
pressure ratio of 10. The minimum
and maximum temperatures in the
cycle are 295 K and 1240 K.
Assuming an isentropic efficiency
of 83 percent for the compressor
and 87 percent for the turbine, and
using constant specific heats at
room temperature determine;
a) The air temperature at the
turbine exit,
b) The net work output, and
c) The thermal efficiency.

Solution

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 15 15

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

Sample Problem 6.2

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 16 16

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

Sample Problem 6.2

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 17 17

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

Sample Problem 6.2

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 18 18

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Deviation of Actual Gas-turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

Sample Problem 6.2

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 19 19

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Practice Problem 6.2

1. A gas-turbine power plant operates on the simple Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid and delivers 32 MW of power. The
minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle are 310 K and 900 K, and the pressure of air at the compressor exit is 8 times the
value at the compressor inlet. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 80 percent for the compressor and 86 percent for the turbine,
determine the mass flow rate of air through the cycle. Use constant specific heats at room temperature.
[984.6 kg/s]

2. A simple Brayton cycle using air as the working fluid as a pressure ratio of 10. The minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle
are 295 and 1240 K. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 83 percent for the compressor and 87 percent for the turbine, determine;
a) the air temperature at the turbine exit,
b) the net work output, and
c) the thermal efficiency.
Use constant specific heats at room temperature.
[(a) 720 K; (b) 190.2 kJ/kg; (c) 30.8%]

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 20 20

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Practice Problem 6.2

3. Air is used as the working fluid in a simple ideal Brayton cycle that has a pressure ratio of 12, a compressor inlet temperature of 300,
and a turbine inlet temperature of 1000 K. Determine the required mass flow rate of air for a net power output of 70 MW. Assuming
both compressor and the turbine has an isentropic efficiency of; (a) 100 percent, and (b) 85 percent. Assume constant specific heats
at room temperature.
[(a) 352 Kg/s; (b) 1037 kg/s]

4. A gas-turbine power plant operates on the simple Brayton cycle between the pressure limits of 100 and 800 kPa. Air enters the
compressor at 30°C and leaves at 330°C at a mass flow rate of 200 kg/s. The maximum cycle temperature is 1400 K. During
operation of the cycle, the net power output is measured experimentally to be 60 MW. Assume constant properties for air at 300 K;
a) sketch T-s diagram for the cycle;
b) determine the isentropic efficiency of the turbine for these operating conditions [95.4%]; and
c) determine the cycle thermal efficiency. [37.5%]

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 21 21

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Development of Gas Turbines

The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the
maximum temperature that the turbine blades can withstand.
This also limits the pressure ratios that can be used in the
cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary oxidant for the
combustion of the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to keep the
temperature of various components within safe limits. An air–
fuel ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
The possible ways to improve the cycle;
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components
(turbines, compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling,
regeneration or recuperation, and reheating)

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 22 22

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

• In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the
turbine is often considerably higher than the temperature of the air
leaving the compressor.
• Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated
by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger (a
regenerator or a recuperator).
• The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of
regeneration since less fuel is used for the same work output.

A gas-turbine engine
with regenerator.

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 23 23

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

• The regenerator effectiveness regen is defined as the ratio of the heat

transferred to the compressor gases in the regenerator to the
maximum possible heat transfer to the compressor gases.
qregen , act = h5 − h2
qregen , max = h5' − h2 = h4 − h2
qregen , act h5 − h2
 regen = =
qregen , max h4 − h2

• For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant

• Upon derivation the thermal
specific heats, the regenerator effectiveness becomes;
efficiency becomes
T5 − T2
 regen 
T4 − T2

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 24 24

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

• The thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of the
minimum to maximum temperatures as well as the
pressure ratio.
• Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios
and low minimum-to-maximum temperature ratios.
• Can regeneration be used at high pressure ratios?

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 25 25

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.3

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration
Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas turbine
engine at 100 kPa and 300 K and is compressed to 800
kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent,
and the air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor
efficiency of 75 percent and a turbine efficiency of 86
percent, determine;
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency.
Assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 26 26

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.3

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 27 27

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.3

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 28 28

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.3

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 29 29

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Sample Problem 6.3

The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 30 30

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Practice Problem 6.3

1. A gas-turbine is designed with a regenerator. Air enters the compressor at 100 kPa and 30°C. The compressor pressure ratio is 10; the
maximum cycle temperature is 800°C; and the cold air stream leaves the regenerator 10°C cooler than the hot air stream at the inlet of
the regenerator. Assuming both the compressor and the turbine to be isentropic, determine the rates of heat addition and rejection for
this cycle when it produces 115 kW. Use constant specific heats at room temperature.
[258 kW, 143 kW]

2. Rework Problem 1 above when the compressor isentropic efficiency is 87 percent and the turbine isentropic efficiency is 93 percent.
[(a) 720 K; (b) 190.2 kJ/kg; (c) 30.8%]

3. Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas turbine engine at 310 K and 100 kPa, where it is compressed to 900 kPa and 650 K.
The regenerator has an effectiveness of 80 percent, and the air enters the turbine at 1400 K. For a turbine efficiency of 90 percent,
determine (a) the amount of heat transfer in the regenerator and (b) the thermal efficiency. Use constant specific heats at room
temperature.
[(a) 130.7 kJ/kg; (b) 39.9%]

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 31 31

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

For minimizing work input to compressor and

maximizing work output from turbine:

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 32 32

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas between two specified pressures can be
decreased by carrying out the compression process in stages and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low
as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as high as possible during an expansion
process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are accompanied by regeneration. Why?

Comparison of
work inputs to a
single-stage
compressor
(1AC) and a two-
stage
compressor with
intercooling
As the number of compression and expansion stages
(1ABD).
increases, the gas-turbine cycle with intercooling,
reheating, and regeneration approaches the Ericsson
cycle.
MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 33 33
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4
A gas turbine with intercooling and reheat operates at steady state. Air enters to the both of identical compressor at 300 K, respectively and
both of identical turbine at 1400 K, respectively with a mass flow rate within the cycle of 6 kg/s. The pressure ratio across the two-stage
compressor and the two-stage turbine is 10, respectively. The isentropic efficiency of each compressor and turbine stage is assumed to be
100%. Assuming that there is no pressure loss during intercooling, combustion and reheating process, and by using cold air standard
assumption;
a) Sketch a T-s diagram for this regenerative Brayton-cycle,
b) Determine the thermal efficiency
c) Determine the net power developed (kW)

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 34 34

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4
a) Sketch a T-s diagram for this
regenerative Brayton-cycle.

Identical Turbine at 1400 K;

T5 = T7 and T6 = T8
Both turbines will produce
similar power output, then total
work output = 2 × 𝑤𝑇

Identical compressor at 300 K;

T1 = T3 and T2 = T4
Both compressors will consume
similar power input, then total work
input = 2 × 𝑤𝑐

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 35 35

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4
Calculating the pressure ratio for each compressor and turbine from the overall pressure ratio.

Note; Overall pressure ratio

For 3 compressors or turbines;
3
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
For n compressors or turbines;
𝑛
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 36 36

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 37 37

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 38 38

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

Sample Problem 6.4

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 39 39

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad

Practice Problem 6.4

1. Air enters a gas turbine with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion at 100 kPa and 17°C. This system uses a
regenerator as well as reheating and intercooling. The pressure ratio across each compressor and turbine is 4; and 300 kJ/kg of heat
are added to the air in each combustion chamber; and the regenerator operates perfectly while increasing the temperature of the cold
air by 20°C. Determine this system’s thermal efficiency. Assume isentropic operations for all compressor and the turbine stages and
use constant specific heats at room temperature.
[37.8%]

2. Repeat Problem 1 for the case of three stages of compression with intercooling and three stages with expansion with
reheating.
[40.1%]

MEC 451 – THERMODYNAMICS 40 40