MEK450-Chapter - 4 - Basic Application of Thermodynamics

1
MEK 450
CHAPTER
Thermofluids
4 Lecture Notes:
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor
Prepared By:
Ts Dr Zainoor Hailmee Solihin
Basic Application
of
Thermodynamics
School of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Zainoor
Chapter 4 – Basic Application of

Thermodynamics
1. Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycle.
2. Otto Cycle : The Ideal Cycle for Petrol Engine
3. Refrigerators and Heat Pump
4. Reversed Carnot cycle and coefficient of performance
5. Vapor compression cycle: Ideal Cycle, Actual Cycle
6. Principles and types of Air-Conditioning
7. Properties of Air Mixtures; Temperature and Humidity Control
8. Psychometric Chart
9. Basic Processes of Air Conditioning; Heating, Cooling,
Humidification, Dehumidification, Adiabatic Mixing
MEK 450 – THERMOFLUIDS 2

Faculty
School of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM Idris Saad
Zainoor
Introduction to Power Plants

• A power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted to electric power.
• Most power stations contain one or more generators, a rotating machine that converts
mechanical power into electrical power.
• Types of power plants;
• Gas Turbine Power Plant – gas as a working fluids
• Steam Turbine Power Plant – working fluids changing phase from liquid to vapor
• Nuclear Power Plant – energy available from the nuclear
• Hydro-electric Power Plant – energy available from falling water
• Solar Power Plant – energy available from the solar
• Geo-thermal Power Plant – energy available in the Earth’s crust
• Tidal Power Plant – energy available from the tides
• Wind Power Plant – energy available from the wind turbines
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Steam Power Plant

• A steam power plant or known as thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime
mover is steam driven.
• Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.
• A thermal power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted to electric power.
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Carnot Cycle
• Based on the Carnot cycle, the heat engine may be
composed of the following components. Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700
600
500
6000 kPa
400
T [C]
300 2 100 kPa
3
200
100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
s [kJ/kg-K]
The thermal efficiency of this cycle is

given as;
Wnet Q
 th , Carnot   1  out
1-2 isothermal heat addition in a boiler Qin Qin
2-3 isentropic expansion in a turbine
TL
3-4 isothermal heat rejection in a condenser  1
4-1 isentropic compression in a compressor TH
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Carnot Cycle
• The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between
two specified temperature limits but it is not a suitable model for
power cycles. Because:
• Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase
systems severely limits the maximum temperature that can be
used in the cycle (374°C for water)
• Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high
moisture content because of the impingement of liquid droplets
on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
• Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a pump that handles two
phases.
• The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic
compression to extremely high pressures and isothermal heat
transfer at variable pressures.
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Rankine Cycle:
The Ideal Cycle For Vapor Power Cycles
• Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by superheating the
steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser.
• The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
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Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression in Pump
The pump work can be determined by:
m 1h1  W pump  m 2 h2
W pump  m h2  h1 
W pump  m 1 P2  P1 
Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler

The energy balance for boiler:
m 2h2  Q in  m 3h3
Q in  m h3  h2 
Q  Q
in Boiler
Q Boiler   Boiler  m fuel  CHV
m f  Fuel mass flow rate  kg 
 s
CHV  Calorificvalue of fuel  kJ 
 kg 
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Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion in Turbine
The energy balance for turbine:
m 3h3  Wout  m 4 h4
W  m h  h 
out 3 4
Process 4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in

a Condenser
The energy balance for condenser:

m 4h4  Qout  m 1h1 Q  Q
out condenser
Q out  m h4  h1  Qcondenser  m cw  Ccw  Tout  Tin 


Based on the Second Law the thermal efficiency becomes:

wnet h3  h4   h2  h1 
th  
qin h3  h2 
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Ideal Rankine Cycle

Sample Problem 6.5
Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa
and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this
cycle.
3 Mpa
3 Mpa 350°C
75 kPa 75 kPa
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Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from

Idealized Ones
• The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result of irreversibilities in
various components.
• Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiencies
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle (b) The effect of pump and turbine
from the ideal Rankine cycle irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
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Actual Vapor Power Cycles

Sample Problem 6.6
Consider a steam power plant that operates on a
simple Rankine cycle and has a net power output of
45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and
500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure
of 10 kPa by running cooling water from a lake
through the tubes of the condenser at a rate of 2000
kg/s with specific heat for cooling water is 4.184
kJ/kg.°C. The isentropic efficiency for both turbine
and compressor are 87 percent. Show the cycle on
a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines and
determine;
a) The thermal efficiency of the cycle, (33.8%)
b) The mass flow rate of the steam, and (41.4
kg/s)
c) The temperature rise of the cooling water.
(10.5°C)
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Practice Problem 6.5

1. A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between the pressure limits of 3 MPa and 50
kPa. The temperature of the steam at the turbine inlet is 300°C, and the mass flow rate of steam through the
cycle is 35 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal
efficeincy of the cycle and (b) the net power output of the power plant.
[(a) 27.1%; (b) 25.2 MW ]
2. Refrigerant-134a is used as the working fluid in a simple ideal Rankine cycle which operates the boiler at 2000
kPa and the condenser at 24°C. The mixture at the exit of the turbine has a quality of 93 percent. Determine the
turbine inlet temperature, the cycle thermal efficiency, and the back-work ratio of this cycle.
[67.5°C; 10.7%; 0.0530 ]
3. Consider a 210-MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine
at 10 MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit, (b) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle, and (c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
[(a) 0.793; (b) 40.2 %; (c) 165 kg/s ]
4. Repeat Q3 assuming an isentropic efficiency of 85 percent for both the turbine and the pump.
[(a) 0.874; (b) 34.1 %; (c) 194 kg/s ]
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5. A simple Rankine cycle uses water as the working fluid. The boiler operates at 6000 kPa and the condenser
at 50 kPa. At the entrance to the turbine, the temperature is 450°C. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is
94 percent, pressure and pump losses are negligible, and the water leaving the condenser is subcooled by
6.3°C. The boiler is sized for a mass flow rate of 20 kg/s. Determine the rate at which heat is added in the
boiler, the power required to operate the pumps, the net power produced by the cycle, and the thermal
efficiency.
[ 59660 kW; 122 kW; 18050 kW, 30.3% ]
6. Consider a coal-fired steam power plant that produces 175 MW of electric power. The power plant operates
on a simple ideal Rankine cycle with turbine inlet conditions of 7 MPa and 550°C and a condenser pressure of
15 kPa. The coal has a heating value (energy released when the fuel is burned) of 29300 kJ/kg. Assuming
that 85 percent of this energy is transferred to the steam in the boiler and that the electrical generator has an
efficiency of 96 percent, determine (a) the overall plant efficiency (the ratio of net electric power output to the
energy input as fuel) and (b) the required rate of coal supply.
[ (a) 31.5 %; (b) 68.3 tone/h ]
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An Overview of Reciprocating Engines

• The reciprocation engine is one the most common machines that is
being used in a wide variety of applications from automobiles to
aircrafts to ships, etc.
• It is actually a piston–cylinder device where piston moving back and
forth inside the cylinder to convert heat to work.
• The nomenclature for reciprocating engines includes;
1. Top dead center (TDC): The position of the piston when it forms the
smallest volume in the cylinder.
2. Bottom dead center (BDC): The position of the piston when it forms
the largest volume in the cylinder.
3. Stroke (L): The largest distance that piston travels in one direction.
4. Bore (B): The diameter of the piston.
5. Clearance volume (Vc): The minimum volume formed in the cylinder
when the piston is at TDC. Also known as volume at TDC (VTDC)
6. Displacement volume (Vd): The volume displaced by the piston as it
moves between the TDC and BDC.
𝐵2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝜋 𝐿
4
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An Overview of Reciprocating Engines

7. Compression ratio (r): The ratio of maximum to minimum
(clearance) volumes in the cylinder:
8. Mean effective pressure (MEP): A fictitious (constant throughout the

cycle) pressure that if acted on the piston will produce the work. An
engine with higher MEP will produce larger net output work.
• The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to

compare the performances of reciprocating engines of equal size.
• The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per
cycle and thus performs better.
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Introduction to Petrol Engines

• A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in
American English) is an internal combustion engine with
spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and
similar volatile fuels.
• The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in
Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had
been earlier attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried
Marcus, Julius Hock and George Brayton.
• The first petrol combustion engine (one cylinder, 121.6
cm3 displacement) was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by
Enrico Bernardi.
• In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-
mixed before compression (although some modern
petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection).
• The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but
now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection,
except in small engines where the cost/complication of
electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency.
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4–stroke, Spark-Ignition Engines (Petrol Engines)

• A four-stroke engine (also known as four cycle) is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the
piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft.
• A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
• The four separate strokes are termed:
 Intake: Also known as induction. The piston begins at T.D.C. and
ends at B.D.C.. The intake valve is in the open position while the
piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum
pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion.
 Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the
suction stroke, and ends at T.D.C. The piston compresses the air-fuel
mixture in. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this
stage.
 Combustion: Also known as power or ignition This is the start of the
second revolution of the four stroke cycle. The piston is at T.D.C. (the
end of the compression stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is
ignited by a spark plug forcefully returning the piston to B.D.C. This
stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the
crankshaft.
 Exhaust: Also known as outlet. The piston once again returns from
B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels
the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
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Otto Cycle:
The Ideal Cycle For Spark-ignition Engines
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Ideal Otto Cycle

Air enters the cylinder through the open intake valve at
atmospheric pressure P0 during process 0-1 as the piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
The intake valve is closed at state 1 and air is
compressed isentropically to state 2. Heat is transferred
at constant volume (process 2-3); it is expanded
isentropically to state 4; and heat is rejected at constant
volume (process 4-1).
Air is expelled through the open exhaust valve (process
1-0).
Work interactions during intake and exhaust cancel each
other, and thus inclusion of the intake and exhaust
processes has no effect on the net work output from the
cycle.
However, when calculating power output from the cycle
during an ideal Otto cycle analysis, we must consider the
fact that the ideal Otto cycle has four strokes just like
actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine.
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Ideal Otto Cycle

 The processes in the Otto cycle are as per following:
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
P 3 T 3
PvgConstant Qin
Qin
4 2
2 4
Qout
1 1 Qout
v2 v1 v s
(a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram
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Ideal Otto Cycle

 Related formula based on basic thermodynamics:
Process Description Related formula

k
Isentropic P2V2  P1V1 mRT2  T1 
k
P1  V2   T1  k 1
1-2 W12         
compression 1 k 1 k P2  V1   T2 
Constant
2-3 volume heat Qin  mCv T3  T2  Qin  c  m f  CHV
addition
k
Isentropic P4V4  P3V3 mRT4  T3 
k
P3  V4   T3  k 1
3-4 W34        
expansion 1 k 1 k P4  V3   T4 
Constant
4-1 volume heat Qout  mCv T4  T1 
rejection
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Ideal Otto Cycle

 Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle:
Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin
 Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.
Qnet ,23  Wnet ,23  U 23

3
Wnet ,23  Wother ,23  Wb,23  0   PdV  0
2
 Thus, for constant specific heats
Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
Qin  m f  C HV
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Ideal Otto Cycle

 Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.
Qnet ,41  Wnet ,41  U 41
1
Wnet ,41  Wother ,41  Wb,41  0   PdV  0
4
 Thus, for constant specific heats,
Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
 The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Otto  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mCv (T3  T2 )
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Ideal Otto Cycle

(T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
 Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
k 1 k 1
T2  V1  T3  V4 
  and  
T1  V2  T4  V3 
 Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1,
T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
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Ideal Otto Cycle

 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto  1 
T2
 Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

k 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 
k 1 k 1
T1  V2  1
   
T2  V1  r
 where the compression ratio is

r = V1/V2 and
1
 th , Otto  1 
r k 1
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Ideal Otto Cycle

Example 5.1
Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on the Otto cycle for a petrol engine with a
cylinder bore of 50 mm, a stroke of 75 mm and a clearance volume of 21.3 cm3.
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• No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations
• Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase or by a blower
• Induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion through exhaust
ports
• Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into combustion chamber
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• The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke counterparts but they are
relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios.
Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution = 𝑛ሶ
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution = 𝑛ሶ
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Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engine
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IC Engine Performance Parameters

• The job of an internal combustion engine is to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
• Practically it means that an IC engine of any type produce mechanical work in the form of a rotating
shaft giving some torque at some value of r.p.m by continuously burning of fuel.
• Performances of IC engine means that how will it complete the above mentioned job. It can be
measured or compared only in terms of certain parameters and its called performance parameters.
• The performance of the engine is judged from the various parameters.
• The basic engine performance parameters are;
1. Engine Torque
2. Engine Power,
3. Air-fuel ratio
4. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption.
• These performance parameters are normally plotted against engine speed and usually used to
compare between IC engines.
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Engine Torque
• Torque, moment, or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object around an
axis, fulcrum, or pivot.
• Engine Torque is the amount of “turning power” produce by an engine at its flywheel.
• It is measured by using engine dynamometer and calculated as;
T  F  L N .m
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Engine Brake Power (BP)

• An IC engine is used to produce mechanical power by combustion of fuel. Power is referred to as
the rate at which work is done.
• Power is expressed as the product of force and linear velocity or product of torque and angular
velocity.
• In order to measure power one needs to measure torque or force and speed.
• The force or torque is measured by Dynamometer and speed by Tachometer.
• The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power
(bp) and is given by;
2NT
BP  kW 
60000 2𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡
where; 𝑁 = 𝑚×𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
T  Torque N .M 
N  Engine Speed rpm
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑁
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘𝑊
𝑛ሶ
Where
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = kJ
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Air-fuel Ratio (AFR)

• AFR is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process such as in an internal
combustion engine:
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴𝐹𝑅 = =
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
• Where;
𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝑘𝑔] ; 𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 [ 𝑠 ]
𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝑘𝑔] ; 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [ ]
𝑠
• The stoichiometric ratio is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that burns all fuel with no excess air. For
gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric air–fuel mixture is about 14.7:1 i.e. for every one gram of fuel,
14.7 grams of air are required.
• Air-fuel ratio of 12:1 is considered as maximum output ratio, whereas the air-fuel ratio of 14.7:1 is
considered as maximum fuel economy ratio.
• Mass of air can be calculated through ideal gas law; 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 or by using air-flow meter.
• Mass of fuel can be calculated through the weight of the fuel tank.
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 36
Faculty
Zainoor
Saad
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
• BSFC is a measure of how efficiently a given amount of fuel is being converted into a specific
amount of horsepower.
• More broadly stated, it could also be considered a measure of combustion efficiency.
• The BSFC is given by;
𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔ൗ 3600 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔 3600 𝑘𝐽 𝑔

𝑠
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = × = × =
𝑘𝐽ൗ 1 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑘𝐽 1 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑃𝐸𝑛𝑔 𝑠 @𝑘𝑊 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 ൗ𝑘𝑔
• Where;
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
• 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊 = 60000 = 𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡
• 𝑁 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑝𝑚
• 𝑇 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑁𝑚
• 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 37
Faculty
Zainoor
Saad
IC Engine Performance Curves
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 38
Faculty
Zainoor
Saad
Ideal Otto Cycle

Sample Problem 5.2
An Otto cycle having a compression

ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working
fluid. Initially, P1 = 95 kPa; T1 = 17˚C;
and V1 = 0.312 litres. During the heat
addition process, 3.75 kJ of heat are
added. Using constant specific heat
values at room temperature,
determine all the temperature and
pressure at each states, the thermal
efficiency and the mean effective
pressure.
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 39
Faculty
Zainoor
Saad

1. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 10.5, takes in air at 90 kPa and 40°C, and is
repeated 2500 times per minute. Using constant specific heat values at room temperature,
determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle and the rate of heat input if the cycle is to
produce 90 kW of power.
[61% and 148 kW]
2. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression
process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the
constant-volume heat-addition process. Using constant specific heat values at room
temperature, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the heat addition
process, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective
pressure for the cycle.
[(a) 4392 kPa; 1734 K, (b) 423 kJ/kg, (c) 56.4 percent,(d ) 534 kPa]
3. The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the isentropic compression
process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35°C, and 600 cm3. The temperature at the end of the
isentropic expansion process is 800 K. Using specific heat values at room temperature,
determine (a) the highest temperature and pressure in the cycle; (b) the amount of heat
transferred in, in kJ; (c) the thermal efficiency; and (d) the mean effective pressure.
[(a) 1969 K, 6072 kPa,(b) 0.59 kJ, (c) 59.4 percent, (d) 652 kPa]
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 40
Faculty
Zainoor
Saad

4. A six-cylinder, four-stroke, spark-ignition engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle takes in air
at 95 kPa and 40°C, and is limited to a maximum cycle temperature of 1300°C. Each
cylinder has a bore of 8.9 cm, and each piston has a stroke of 9.9 cm. The minimum
enclosed volume is 9.8 percent of the maximum enclosed volume. How much power will this
engine produce when operated at 2500 rpm? Use constant specific heats at room
temperature.
[29.8 kW]
5. A four-cylinder, four-stroke, 1.6-L gasoline engine operates on the Otto cycle with a
compression ratio of 11. The air is at 100 kPa and 37°C at the beginning of the compression
process, and the maximum pressure in the cycle is 8 MPa. The compression and expansion
processes may be modeled as polytropic with a polytropic constant of 1.3. Using constant
specific heats at 850 K, determine (a) the temperature at the end of the expansion process,
(b) the net work output and the thermal efficiency (c) the mean effective pressure, (d) the
engine speed for a net power output of 50 kWh, and (e) the specific fuel consumption, in
g/kWh, defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel consumed to the net work produced. The
air-fuel ratio, defined as the amount of air divided by the amount of fuel intake, is 16.
[(a) 1098 K, (b) 794 kJ/kg; 59.6% (c) 982 kPa (d) 3820 rev/min (e) 267 g/kWh]
MEC
MEK451
– THERMOFLUIDS 41
4.0 Refrigerators and Heat Pump

 The transfer of heat from a lower temperature region to higher
temperature ones is called refrigeration.
 The main purpose of refrigeration is to transfer heat from a

chamber so that the temperature inside is reduce to below that of
its surrounding.
 Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature

medium to a high-temperature one is the heat pump.
 Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same devices;

they differ in their objectives only.
 The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated

space at a low temperature by removing heat from it.
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the cold
medium; the objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm
medium.
42
MEK 450 – THERMOFLUIDS
4.0 refrigerators and heat pump

 The cycles on which they operate are called refrigeration
cycles.
 The working fluids used in the refrigeration cycles are
called refrigerants. KJM442 – R134a
 QL = magnitude of heat removed from refrigerated space at
temperature TL.
 QH = magnitude of heat rejected to the warm space at
temperature TH.
43
4.0 refrigerators and heat pump
Applications:
•Domestic refrigerator for preserving food
•Freezer for making ice and extended storage of foods eg. Meat, vegetable, ice-cream
•Air-conditioning for comfort and hygiene
•Cryogenics i.e very low temperature for purpose of gas liquefaction and scientific research
44
4.1 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE & COEFFICIENT OF

PERFORMANCE
•A refrigerator that operates on the Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator

•Carnot cycle is reversible cycle consists of two reversible isothermal and isentropic
processes.
•It has the maximum thermal cycle efficiency for given temperature limits.
•This cycle can be compared as a standard against with actual power cycles.
45

PERFORMANCE
 The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrig. cycle operating between TL and TH.
 It is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles since processes 2-3 and 4-1 are not
practical because:
 Process 2-3 involves the compression of a liquid–vapor mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two phases, and
 process 4-1 involves the expansion of high-moisture-content refrigerant in a turbine.
46

PERFORMANCE
The performance of Carnot refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of Coefficient of Performance
(COP),
1 TH 1 TL
COPHP ,Carnot   COPR ,Carnot  
1  TL / TH TH  TL TH / TL  1 TH  TL
Both COPs increase as the difference between the two temperatures decreases, that is, as TL
rises or TH falls.
47

PERFORMANCE
EXAMPLE 4.1
A steady flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant -134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant
changes from saturated vapor to saturated liquid at 30C in the condenser as it rejects heat. The
evaporator pressure is 120 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation lines, and
determine
i. the coefficient of performance
ii. the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space
iii. the net work input.
48
4.2 COMPONENTS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
Capillar Compressor
y tubes
Evaporator
Refrigeration Machine at Home
49
4.2 COMPONENTS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
50
4.2 COMPONENTS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

COMPRESSOR: Provide the driving
force for the entire system by
drawing low pressure refrigerant in
and adding pressure such that it
exits at a higher temperature.
CONDENSER: Exhaust heat from
the system by virtue of heat transfer
across a temperature gradient. The
refrigerant in the condenser is at a
higher temperature than the ambient
temperature.
EXPANSION VALVE: Allow the
refrigerant to expand dramatically in
a controlled process such that it
exits the valve at a low quality liquid-
vapor mixture.
EVAPORATOR: Absorb heat from
the cold space by virtue of a
temperature gradient, similar to the
condenser.
51
4.3.1 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for
refrigeration systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant
is vaporized completely before it is compressed and the turbine is
replaced with a throttling device.
This is the most

widely used cycle for
refrigerators, A-C
systems, and heat
pumps.
Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression 52

refrigeration cycle.

The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible (throttling) process to make it a
more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added benefits cannot justify the
added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance
53
Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal

vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
54
Example 4.2
An ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle operates at steady state with Refrigerant 134a
as the working fluid. Saturated vapour enters the compressor at 2 bar, and saturated liquid exits
the condenser at 8 bar. The mass flow rate of refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
i. The compressor power , in kW
ii. The refrigerating capacity, in tons
iii. The coefficient of performance.
55
Example 4.3
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-
compression refrigerant cycle between 0.14 and 0.8 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s, determine;
a) The rate of the heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input,
c) The rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
d) The COP of the refrigerator.
56
4.3.2 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (Irrevrsible)

An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one owing mostly to the
irreversibilities that occur in various components, mainly due to fluid friction (causes pressure
drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
DIFFERENCES
Non-isentropic compression h2 s  h1
Superheated vapor at evaporator exit c 
Subcooled liquid at condenser exit h2  h1
Pressure drops in condenser and evaporator
57
4.3.2 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (Irreversible)
Example 4.4
A vapour-compression refrigeration cycle operates at steady state with Refrigerant 134a as the
working fluid. Saturated vapour enters the compressor at 2 bar, and saturated liquid exits the
condenser at 8 bar. The isentropic compressor efficiency is 80 %. The mass flow rate of
refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
58
4.3.2 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (Irreversible)
EXAMPLE 4.5
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 Mpa
and −10°C at a rate of 0.05 kg/s and leaves at 0.8 Mpa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in
the condenser to 26°C and 0.72 MPa, and is throttled to 0.15 Mpa. Disregarding any heat
transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the components, determine;
a) The rate of the heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) The isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
59
4.3.3 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (superheated)
The superheated condition at the evaporator exit (state 1), which differs from the saturated
vapour condition shown in Figure below
60
4.3.3 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (superheated)
Example 4.6
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor at -5 C, 2 bar, and saturated liquid exits
the condenser at 8 bar. The isentropic compressor efficiency is 80 %. The mass flow rate of
refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
61
4.3.4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (subcooling)
The subcooling of the condenser exit (state 3), which differs from the saturated vapour
condition shown in Figure below
62
4.3.4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycles (subcooling)
Example 4.7
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor at -5 C, 2 bar, and exits at 8 bar. The
refrigerant leaves the condenser at 8 bar, 30 C. The isentropic compressor efficiency is 80 %.
The mass flow rate of refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
63
QUIZ
Complete this table for refrigerant-134a.
T (ºC) P (kPa) h (kJ/kg) x s (kJ/kg.K) Phase

description
2000 0.7
45 200
-24 750
1600 250
60 0.0
64

1. An ice-making machine operates on the ideal vapour-compression cycle, using refrigerant-134a. The
refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated vapour at 140 kPa and leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid at 600 kPa. Water enters the ice machine at 13°C and leaves as ice at −4°C. For an ice production
rate of 7 kg/h, determine the power input to the ice machine (393 kJ of heat needs to be removed from
each 1 kg of water at 13°C to turn it into ice at −4°C).
[0.146 kW]
2. An ideal vapour compression refrigerant cycle that uses refrigerant-134a as its working fluid maintains a
condenser at 800 kPa and the evaporator at −12°C. Determine the amount of power required and this
system’s COP to service a 150 kW cooling load.
[30.8 kW; 4.87]
3. Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration
cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated
vapour at 140 kPa and is compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines and determine;
a) The coefficient of performance, and
b) The power input to the compressor.
[3.969; 1.26 kW]
65

4. Repeat Practice Problem 6.1 (3) assuming an isentropic efficiency of 8 percent for the compressor.
[3.373; 1.48 kW]
5. Refrigerant134-a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapour at 0.20 Mpa and −5°C at
a rate of 0.07 kg/s, and it leaves at 1.2 MPa and 70°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 44°C
and 1.15 Mpa, and it is throttled to 0.21 Mpa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure drops in the
connecting lines between the components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation
lines and determine;
a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) The power input to the compressor,
c) The isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
[9.42 kW; 3.63 kW; 74.1%, 2.6]
66
4.4 AIR – CONDITIONING

4.4.1 Introduction
 Definition: The process of treating air to control
simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
cleanliness & distribution
 Purpose: To maintain a living space or an

industrial facility at the desired temperature and
humidity by
i. heating
ii. cooling
iii. humidifying (add moisture)
iv. dehumidifying (remove moisture)
67

4.4.1 Introduction
 Application: Office building/residential, hospital, clean
room
 Air-conditioning is meant to provide comfort zone,
not cooling zone!
 Human body’s comfort depends on 3 factors :

i) temperature : 22 to 27ºC
ii) humidity : 40 to 60%
iii) air motion : air ventilation & velocity
 Other factors effecting comfort: air cleanliness, odor,

radiation etc.
68

4.4.1 Introduction
69

4.4.1 Introduction
70

4.4.1 Introduction
All air conditioner units must have the five basic components to work:
i. The compressor
ii. The condenser
iii. The expansion device
iv. The evaporator
v. The copper refrigerant tube (a tube that connects these air conditioner parts)
71

4.4.1 Introduction
72
4.4.2 Dry and Atmospheric Air

• Psychrometry is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist air and the use of
these properties to analyze conditions and processes involving moist air – study of atmospheric
air.
• Air is mixture of nitrogen+ oxygen +small amount of some other gases.
• Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and is referred to as
atmospheric air – content varies from 0 to 3% by mass.
• Air that contains no vapor is called dry air.
Constituent By volume By mass

Nitrogen 78.03% 75.47%
Oxygen 20.99% 23.19%
Argon 0.94% 1.29%
Carbon 0.03% 0.05%
dioxide
Hydrogen 0.01% -
73
 The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges from

about -10 to about 50 °C
 Both the dry air and the water vapor can be treated as an ideal gas
with constant Cp value of 1.005 kJ/kg•K in the temperature range of
air-conditioning applications.
74
 Taking 0 C as the reference temperature, the enthalpy and enthalpy change of dry air
can be determine from
hdry air  c pT kJ kg 
hdry air  c p T kJ kg 
75
 At 50 C, the saturation pressure of water is 12.3 kPa and at the pressure below this
value, water vapour can be treated as an ideal gas, even when it is a saturated vapour.
 The atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture whose pressure

is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air Pa and that of
water vapour Pv.
P  Pa  Pv kPa 
76
 The enthalpy of water vapour in air can be taken to be equal to the

enthalpy of saturated vapour at the same temperature.
hv T , low P   hg T 
 The enthalpy of water vapour can be determined approximately from
hg T   2500 .9  1.82T
** T in ºC
77
4.4.3 SPECIFIC AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF AIR
 Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air.

 Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by
reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin.
• The main measurement of humidity:

i) Specific humidity, ω
ii) Relative humidity, φ
78
 Specific humidity, , (or absolute humidity) is a ratio of water vapor

content of the mixture to the total air content on a mass basis.
mv

ma
Pv 0.622 Pv
  0.622 
Pa P  Pv
kg H 2O
Unit :
kg dry air
79

• Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, measures the current absolute humidity
relative to the maximum (highest point) for that temperature.
 The comfort level depends more on the amount of moisture the air holds (mv) relative to the
maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature (mg).
 The ratio of these two quantities is called the relative humidity 

mv

Pv Pg = Psat@T
mg Pg
 Both specific humidity and relative humidity can be written as
0.622Pg P
 
P  Pg 0.622   Pg
80
•The enthalpy of atmospheric air is expresses per unit mass of dry air instead of per
unit of the air-water-vapor mixture
The total enthalpy of atmospheric air is the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and the water
vapour:
H  H a  H v  ma ha  mv hv
H mv
h  ha  hv  ha  hv
ma ma
h  ha  hg kJ / kg dry air 
Note: Ordinary temperature of atmospheric air is frequently referred to as the dry-bulb

temperature.
81
4.4.4 DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
 Dew-point temperature Tdp is defines as the temperature at which condensation

begins when the air is cooled at constant pressure.
 Tdp is the saturation temperature of water corresponding to the vapour pressure:

Tdp = Tsat@Pv
82
4.4.5 DRY BULB AND WET BULB TEMPERATURE
 Wet-bulb temperature is read from wet-bulb thermometer, which is an ordinary liquid-in glass
thermometer whose bulb is enclosed by wick moistened with water.
 Dry-bulb temperature refers simply to the temperature that would be measured by a

thermometer placed in the mixture.
83
EXAMPLE 4.8:
A 5-m  5-m  3-m room contain the air-water vapor mixture at 25C and 100 kPa at the
relative humidity of 75%. Determine:
i. The partial pressure of dry air
ii. The specific humidity
iii. The enthalpy per unit mass of the dry air
iv. The masses of the dry air and water vapour in the room
v. The dew point temperature
vi. The amount of water vapor condensed, if the mixture is cooled to 10oC in a constant-
pressure process.
84
EXAMPLE 4.9:
A room contains air at 20oC and 98 kPa at a relative humidity of 85 percent. Determine
(a) the partial pressure of dry air,
(b) the specific humidity of the air, and
(c) the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air
EXAMPLE 4.10:
Atmospheric air at 30°C and 100 kPa has a dew point of 20°C. Determine;
a)the relative humidity,
b)humidity ratio or also known as specific humidity, and
c)enthalpy of the mixture per mass of dry air.
85
4.4.6 PSYCHROMETIC CHART
86
87
88

Example 4.11
The dry and wet-bulb temperatures of atmospheric air at 1 atm (101.325 kPa) pressure are
measured with sling psychrometer and determine to be 25 and 15 C respectively. Determine
a. The specific humidity
b. The relative humidity
c. The enthalpy of the air
Example 4.12
Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35 C and 40% relative humidity. Using
psychrometric chart, determine
i. The specific humidity
ii. The enthalpy
iii. The wet bulb temperature
iv. The dew-point temperature
v. The specific volume of the air.
89
4.4.7 AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESSES

 The air-conditioning process include:
i) Simple heating (raising the temperature)
ii) Simple cooling (lowering the temperature)
iii) Humidifying (adding moisture)
iv) Dehumidifying (removing moisture)
 Sometime two or more of these processes are needed to bring the air to a desired
temperature and humidity level.
 Various air-conditioning processes
90

Simple Heating and Cooling ( = constant)
 Many residential heating systems consist of a stove, a heat pump, or an electric
resistance heater.
 The air in these systems is heated by circulating it through a duct that contains the tubing for the hot gases
or the electric resistance wires.
• Heating and cooling appear as a horizontal line since no moisture is added to or removed from the air.
Dry air mass balance

Water mass balance
Energy balance
•During simple heating, specific humidity remains

constant, but relative humidity decreases.
91

Simple Heating and Cooling ( = constant)
Cooling can be accomplished by passing the air over some coils through which a
refrigerant or chilled water flows.
 During simple cooling, specific humidity remains

constant, but relative humidity increases.
92

Heating with Humidification
Problems with the low relative humidity resulting from simple heating can be eliminated by humidifying
the heated air. This is accomplished by passing the air first through a heating section and then through a
humidifying section.
93

Heating with Humidification
 The location of state 3 depends on how the humidification is accomplished.

 If steam in the humidification section – this will result in humidification with additional heating
(T3>T2).
 If humidification by spraying water into the airstream –part of the latent heat vaporization will
come from the air, which will result in the cooling of the heated airstream (T3<T2)
94
Cooling with Dehumidification

The specific humidity of air remains constant during a simple cooling process, but its relative humidity
increases. If the relative humidity reaches undesirably high levels, it may be necessary to remove
some moisture from the air, that is, to dehumidify it. This requires cooling the air below its dew-point
temperature.
95
Example 4.13
A heating section consists of a 38-cm-diameter duct that houses a 4-kW electrical
resistance heater. Air enters the heating section at 1 atm, 10C and 40% relative humidity
at a velocity of 8 m/s. Determine
i. The exit temperature
ii. The exit relative humidity of the air
iii. The exit velocity
Example 4.14
Air enters a 40-cm-diameter cooling section at 1 atm, 32C and 30% relative humidity at a
velocity of 18 m/s. Heat is remove from the air at a rate of 1200 kJ/min. Determine
i. The exit temperature
ii. The exit relative humidity of the air
iii. The exit velocity
96
Example 4.15
Air at 1 atm, 15C and 60% relative humidity at a rate 2 m3/min of is first heated to 20C in
a heating section and then humidified by introducing water vapour. The air leaves the
humidifying section at 25C and 65% relative humidity. Determine
i. The amount of steam added to the air
ii. The amount of heat transfer to the air in the heating section.
Example 4.16
Air enters a window air conditioner at 1 atm, 32C and 70% relative humidity at a rate of 2
m3/min, and it leaves as saturated air 15C. Part of the moisture in the air that condenses
during the process is also remove at 15C. Determine the rates of heat and moisture
removal from the air.
97

Example 4.17
Air at 100 kPa, 10C and 30% relative humidity at a rate 45 m3/min of is first heated to 22C
in a heating section and then humidified by introducing water vapour. The air leaves the
humidifying section at 25C and 60% relative humidity. Determine
i. The amount of steam added to the air
ii. The amount of heat transfer to the air in the heating section.
98

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1

Chapter 4 – Basic Application of

MEK 450 – THERMOFLUIDS 2

Introduction to Power Plants

Steam Power Plant

The thermal efficiency of this cycle is

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Process 4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in

Q out  m h4  h1  Qcondenser  m cw  Ccw  Tout  Tin 

Based on the Second Law the thermal efficiency becomes:

Ideal Rankine Cycle

Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from

Actual Vapor Power Cycles

Practice Problem 6.5

Practice Problem 6.5

An Overview of Reciprocating Engines

An Overview of Reciprocating Engines

8. Mean effective pressure (MEP): A fictitious (constant throughout the

• The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to

Introduction to Petrol Engines

4–stroke, Spark-Ignition Engines (Petrol Engines)

4–stroke, Spark-Ignition Engines (Petrol Engines)

Ideal Otto Cycle

Ideal Otto Cycle

Ideal Otto Cycle

Process Description Related formula

Ideal Otto Cycle

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet ,23  Wnet ,23  U 23

 Thus, for constant specific heats

Ideal Otto Cycle

 The thermal efficiency becomes

Ideal Otto Cycle

 Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1,

Ideal Otto Cycle

 Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

 where the compression ratio is

Ideal Otto Cycle

2–stroke, Spark-Ignition Engines (Petrol Engines)

2–stroke, Spark-Ignition Engines (Petrol Engines)

Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engine

IC Engine Performance Parameters

Engine Brake Power (BP)

Air-fuel Ratio (AFR)

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)

𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔ൗ 3600 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔 3600 𝑘𝐽 𝑔

IC Engine Performance Curves

Ideal Otto Cycle

An Otto cycle having a compression

Practice Problem 5.1

Practice Problem 5.1

4.0 Refrigerators and Heat Pump

 The main purpose of refrigeration is to transfer heat from a

 Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature

 Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same devices;

 The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated

4.0 refrigerators and heat pump

4.0 refrigerators and heat pump

•Air-conditioning for comfort and hygiene