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CHAPTER
MEC 451

4 Thermodynamics
Lecture Notes:
MOHD HAFIZ MOHD NOH
HAZRAN HUSAIN & MOHD SUHAIRIL
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Second Law of
Shah Alam, Selangor
Thermodynamics

For students EM 220 and EM 221 only

 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM

Introduction

 A process must satisfy the first law in order to occur.

 Satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will take
place.

 Second law is useful:

 provide means for predicting the direction of processes,

 establishing conditions for equilibrium,
 determining the best theoretical performance of cycles, engines
and other devices.

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A cup of hot coffee does

not get hotter in a cooler
room.
Transferring
heat to a paddle
wheel will not
cause it to
rotate.

These processes cannot occur

even though they are not in
Transferring heat to a wire violation of the first law.
will not generate electricity.

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Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin-Planck statement
 No heat engine can have a
thermal efficiency 100
percent.

 As for a power plant to

operate, the working fluid
must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the
furnace.

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Heat Engines

 Work can easily be converted to other forms of

energy, but?

 Heat engine differ considerably from one another,

but all can be characterized :

o they receive heat from a high-temperature

source
o they convert part of this heat to work

o they reject the remaining waste heat to a low-

temperature sink atmosphere
o they operate on a cycle

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The work-producing
device that best fit into
the definition of a heat
engine is the steam
power plant, which is
an external combustion
engine.

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Thermal Efficiency

 Represent the magnitude of the energy wasted in order

to complete the cycle.
 A measure of the performance that is called the
thermal efficiency.
 Can be expressed in terms of the desired output and
the required input

Desired Result
 th 
Required Input
 For a heat engine the desired result is the net work
done and the input is the heat supplied to make
the cycle operate. 7
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The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than

100 percent.

Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
where

Wnet , out  Wout  Win

Qin  Qnet

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 Applying the first law to the cyclic heat engine

Qnet , in  Wnet , out  U

Wnet , out  Qnet , in
Wnet , out  Qin  Qout

 The cycle thermal efficiency may be written as

Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
Qin  Qout

Qin
Qout
 1
Qin 9
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 A thermodynamic temperature scale related to the heat

transfers between a reversible device and the high and low-
temperature reservoirs by

QL T
 L
QH TH

 The heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot

cycle is called the Carnot Heat Engine in which its
efficiency is

TL
 th , rev  1
TH
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Heat Pumps and Refrigerators

 A device that transfers heat from a low

temperature medium to a high temperature one is
the heat pump.

 Refrigerator operates exactly like heat pump

except that the desired output is the amount of
heat removed out of the system

 The index of performance of a heat pumps or

refrigerators are expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance.

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QH QH QL
COPHP   COPR 
Wnet , in QH  QL Wnet , in
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Carnot Cycle

Process Description

1-2 Reversible isothermal heat addition at

high temperature
2-3 Reversible adiabatic expansion from high
temperature to low temperature
3-4 Reversible isothermal heat rejection at
low temperature
4-1 Reversible adiabatic compression from low
temperature to high temperature

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Execution of Carnot cycle in a piston cylinder device

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 The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat

engines operating between the same temperature limits
compare as follows

 The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible

refrigerators operating between the same temperature limits
compare as follows

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Example 4.1
Solution:
A steam power plant
produces 50 MW of net Wnet , out
 th 
work while burning fuel QH
to produce 150 MW of 
50 MW
 0.333 or 33.3%
heat energy at the high 150 MW
temperature. Determine
the cycle thermal Wnet , out  QH  QL
efficiency and the heat QL  QH  Wnet , out
rejected by the cycle to  150 MW  50 MW
the surroundings.  100 MW

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Example 4.2
A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from a high-
temperature heat reservoir at 652ºC and rejects heat to a low-
temperature heat reservoir at 30ºC. Determine :
(a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine
(b) The amount of heat rejected to the low-temperature heat
reservoir

Solution:

TH = 652oC
TL QL TL
QH  th , rev  1  
TH QH TH
HE
WOUT
(30  273) K (30  273) K
 1   0.328
QL (652  273) K (652  273) K
TL = 30oC  0.672 or 67.2% QL  500 kJ (0.328)
 164 kJ
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Example 4.3
An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains
the refrigerated space at 2ºC while operating in a room where the
temperature is 25ºC and has a COP of 13.5. Is there any truth to his
claim?

Solution:

TH = 25oC
QL TL
COPR  
QH QH  QL TH  TL
(2  273) K
R
Win 
(25  2) K
QL
 1196
.
TL = 2oC

- this claim is also false!

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Supplementary Problem 4.1

1. A 600 MW steam power plant, which is cooled by a river, has a thermal

efficiency of 40 percent. Determine the rate of heat transfer to the river
water. Will the actual heat transfer rate be higher or lower than this
value? Why?
[900 MW]
2. A steam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280
GJ/h. Heat losses to the surrounding air from the steam as it passes
through the pipes and other components are estimated to be about 8
GJ/h. If the waste heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of
145 GJ/h, determine (a) net power output and (b) the thermal
efficiency of this power plant.
[ 35.3 MW, 45.4% ]

3. An air conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate of 750

kJ/min while drawing electric power at a rate of 6 kW. Determine (a)
the COP of this air conditioner and (b) the rate of heat transfer to the
outside air.
[ 2.08, 1110 kJ/min ]
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4. Determine the COP of a heat pump that supplies energy to a house at

a rate of 8000 kJ/h for each kW of electric power it draws. Also,
determine the rate of energy absorption from the outdoor air.
[ 2.22, 4400 kJ/h ]

5. An inventor claims to have developed a heat engine that receives 700

kJ of heat from a source at 500 K and produces 300 kJ of net work
while rejecting the waste heat to a sink at 290 K. Is this reasonable
claim?

6. An air-conditioning system operating on the reversed Carnot cycle is

required to transfer heat from a house at a rate of 750 kJ/min to
maintain its temperature at 24oC. If the outdoor air temperature is
35oC, determine the power required to operate this air-conditioning
system.
[ 0.463 kW ]

7. A heat pump is used to heat a house and maintain it at 24oC. On a

winter day when the outdoor air temperature is -5oC, the house is
estimated to lose heat at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. Determine the
minimum power required to operate this heat pump.
[ 2.18 kW ] 22
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Entropy

 The 2nd law states that process occur in a certain

direction, not in any direction.
 It often leads to the definition of a new property called
entropy, which is a quantitative measure of disorder
for a system.

 Entropy can also be explained as a measure of the

unavailability of heat to perform work in a cycle.

 This relates to the 2nd law since the 2nd law predicts
that not all heat provided to a cycle can be
transformed into an equal amount of work, some heat
rejection must take place.
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Entropy Change

 The entropy change during a reversible process is defined

as

 For a reversible, adiabatic process

dS  0
S2  S1

 The reversible, adiabatic process is called an isentropic

process.
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Entropy Change and Isentropic Processes

The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a process

can be summarized as follows:

i. Pure substances:
Any process: Δs = s2 – s1 (kJ/kgK)
Isentropic process: s2 = s1

ii. Incompressible substances (liquids and solids):

Any process: s2 – s1 = cav T2/T1 (kJ/kg
Isentropic process: T2 = T1

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iii. Ideal gases:

a) constant specific heats (approximate treatment):

for all process
T2 v2
s2  s1  Cv , av ln  R ln
T1 v1

T2 P2
s2  s1  C p , av ln  R ln
T1 P1
for isentropic process
k
 P2   v1 
   
 P1  s  const .  v2 
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Example 4.5
Steam at 1 MPa, 600oC, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. If the
process is isentropic, find the final temperature, the final enthalpy of
the steam, and the turbine work.

Solution:

mass balance : m1  m2  m State1

energy balance
sup erheated
Ein  Eout P1  1 MPa 
 h1  3698.6 kg
kJ

m1h1  m2 h2  Wout T1  600 C 

o

s1  8.0311 kgkJ.K
Wout  m  h1  h2 

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 Since that the process is  Work of turbine

isentropic, s2=s1
Wout  h1  h2
State 2  3698.6  2545.6
P2  0.01 MPa   sat.mixture  1153 kJ
kg

s2  8.0311 kgkJ.K 
 x2  0.984
h2  191.8  0.984  2392.1
 2545.6 kJ
kg

T2  Tsat @ P2  45.81o C

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Isentropic Efficiency for Turbine

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Isentropic Efficiency for Compressor

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Example 4.6
Steam at 1 MPa, 600°C, Solution:
expands in a turbine to 0.01
 Theoretically:
MPa. The isentropic work
of the turbine is 1152.2 wa h1  h2 a
isen ,T  
kJ/kg. If the isentropic ws h1  h2 s
efficiency of the turbine is
wa  isen ,T  ws
90 percent, calculate the
actual work. Find the  0.9 1153
actual turbine exit
temperature or quality of
 1037.7 kJ
kg

the steam.

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State 1
P1  1 MPa  h1  3698.6 kg
kJ


T1  600o C  s1  8.0311 kgkJ. K
State 2s
sat.mixture
P2  0.01 MPa 

kJ 
x2 s  0.984
s2 s  s1  8.0311 kg . K 
 h  2545.6 kJ
2s kg

 Obtain h2a from Wa

wa  h1  h2 a State 2a
h2 a  h1  wa
P2  0.01 MPa   sup erheated
 2660.9 kJ 
kg h2 a  2660.9 kJ
kg  T
 2a  86.85o
C
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Example 4.7
Air enters a compressor  For isentropic process of IGL
k 1
and is compressed
 T2 s   P2  k
adiabatically from 0.1 MPa,   
27°C, to a final state of 0.5  T1   P1 
0.4/1.4
MPa. Find the work done  0.5 
T2 s   27  273  
on the air for a compressor  0.1 
isentropic efficiency of 80  475.4 K
percent.  Then

Wc , s  1.005  475.4  300 

Solution:
 From energy balance
Wc , s  m  h2 s  h1   176 kJ
kg

Wc , s
Wc , s Wc ,a   220 kJ
Wc , s   h2 s  h1 isen ,c kg
m
 CP T2 s  T1  33
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Supplementary Problems 4.2

1. The radiator of a steam heating system has a volume of 20 L and is
filled with the superheated water vapor at 200 kPa and 150oC. At
this moment both inlet and exit valves to the radiator are closed.
After a while the temperature of the steam drops to 40oC as a result
of heat transfer to the room air. Determine the entropy change of
the steam during this process.
[ -0.132 kJ/.K ]
2. A heavily insulated piston-cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of
steam at 300 kPa and 150oC. Steam is now compressed in a
reversible manner to a pressure of 1 MPa. Determine the work
done on the steam during this process.
[ 16 kJ ]
3. A piston –cylinder device contains 1.2 kg of nitrogen gas at 120 kPa
and 27oC. The gas is now compressed slowly in a polytropic process
during which PV1.3=constant. The process ends when the volume is
reduced by one-half. Determine the entropy change of nitrogen
during this process.
[ -0.0617 kJ/kg.K ]
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4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500oC with a

mass flow rate of 3 kg/s and leaves at 30 kPa. The isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 0.90. Neglecting the kinetic energy of
the steam, determine (a) the temperature at the turbine exit and
(b) the power output of the turbine.
[ 69.09oC,3054 kW ]

5. Refrigerant-R134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated

vapor at 120 kPa at a rate of 0.3 m3/min and exits at 1 MPa
pressure. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80
percent, determine (a) the temperature of the refrigerant at the
exit of the compressor and (b) the power input, in kW. Also, show
the process on a T-s diagram with respect to the saturation lines.
[ 58.9oC,1.70 kW ]

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