Calculus - Single Variable.

Vikas Bist *

Department of Mathematics
GITAM, Visakhapatnam- 530045

The text we are following is THOMAS’ CALCULUS Twelfth Edition, 2015 Pearson Press. The
students are advised to solve the problems mentioned in this book. The class notes are a supplement to
the book.
The class notes include questions and problems. It is expected that students should be able to answer
the questions. The problems are generic, and are not expected to be answered now. But the facts
mentioned in problems are useful and can be used.

1 W EEK 1
Functions: To define a function we need two sets let us call them D and C and a rule denoted by f
which maps every element of D to a unique element of C. If a function is defined we denote it:

f : D → C,

The set D is called a domain and C is called a codomain.

Two function are said to be the same or equal or identical functions if they have the same domain,
same codomain and the same rule. for example, the functions

f: R→R f : R → R≥0
2
f (x) = x f (x) = x2

are not the same functions as they have different codomains though we are representing both by f .
Note that g : R → R such that g(x) = 1/x is not a function because there is no real number which is
the image of 0, that is f (0) is not defined.
A function f : D → C is called onto or surjective if to each c ∈ C there is d ∈ D such that f (d) = c.
The function f : R → R≥0 such that f (x) = x2 + 2 is not onto as there is not real number r such that
f (r) = r2 + 2 = 1.

Q UESTION : Is the rule f : R → [1, 4] given by f (x) = x2 + 1 is an onto function?

By [a, b] we mean an interval with endpoints a and b, a < b with both endpoints a and b included.
While [a, b) will denote the interval from a to b with end point b excluded etc.
* email: vbist@gitam.edu
Last revised on August 21, 2023

1
Observe that if C is a finite set with four elements and f : D → C is an onto function, then D must
contain at least four elements.

P ROBLEM : Show that if f : D → C an onto function and C is a finite set, then D must contain at least
as many elements as in C.

Q UESTION : Let f : Z → {1, 2, . . . , n} such that f (n) = r if r is the remainder when divided by n.
Verify that this is an onto function and the domain is not a finite set.
A function f : D → C is said to be one-one or injective if distinct elements of D are mapped to distinct
elements of C, that is if d1 , d2 ∈ C and d1 ̸= d2 , then f (d1 ) ̸= f (d2 ). Equivalently, if f (d1 ) = f (d2 ),
then d1 = d2 .
As an example the function f : R → R such that f (x) = x2 is not one-one because f (−1) = f (1).
However, the function f : R≥0 → R such that f (x) = x2 is one-one.

Q UESTION : Is the function f : [−1, 1] → R such that f (x) = x3 + 1 is one-one?

P ROBLEM : Prove that if f : D → C is one-one and D is a finite set, then C must contain as many
elements as in D.
A function which is one-one and onto is also called a bijective function.

Q UESTION : Prove that f : R → R given by f (x) = 3x + 5 is a bijective function.

P ROBLEM : Let A and B be finite sets with equal number of elements and let f : A → B be a function.
Show that f is one-one if and only if it is onto. This means that you have to prove that if f is on-one
then f is onto also, and if f is onto then f is one-one too.

Q UESTION : Give examples of functions which are: (i) onto but not one-one; (ii) one-one but not onto;
(iii) neither one-one nor onto; (iv) one-one and onto.

P ROBLEM : We have seen that every non-zero number has recurring decimal representation. For
example 1.6 = 1.5999 . . . . Now consider a function f : (0, 1) → (0, 1) which we define as follows.
If a = 0.a1 a2 a3 . . . is a decimal recurring representation of a ∈ (0, 1), define f (0.a1 a2 a3 . . . ) =
0.a1 a3 . . . . For example f (0.264) = f (0.263999 . . . ) = 0.2399 . . . . Show that f is onto but not
one-one. Find two distinct numbers whose image is 0.4999 . . . .

Q UESTION : Show that f : (0, 1] → [1, ∞) given by f (x) = 1/x is a bijection.

Q UESTION : Can you define a bijection between [0, 1] and [−3, 3]?

P ROBLEM : Let A and B are finite sets with equal number of elements and let f : A → B be a function.
Show that f is one-one if and only if f is onto.
Caution this happens only for finite sets. For example f : Z → Z given by f (x) = 2x is one-one but
not onto. On the other hand the function f : Z → Z given by f (x) = [x/2] is onto but not one-one.
Here [x] is the greatest integer function.
A function f : R → R is even if f (−x) = f (x), and odd if f (−x) = −f (x). The graph of an even
function is symmetric about the y-axis and the graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
What it means is that if f is an even function then draw the graph for non-negative values of x and then

2
take its reflection about the y axis. In case of odd functions we first draw the graph for non-negative
values of x, then take reflection about the y-axis and then the reflected curve is again reflected about
the x-axis(it will be in the negative x axis). The following are illustrations for this fact.
The function f (x) = x2 − x4 + 2 is an even function. Just draw the graph f in for x ≥ 0 and then take
its reflection about the y axis (see figure below).
3

−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

Figure 1: Graph of even function f (x) = x2 − x4 + 2.

Now consider the function f (x) = x3 − x. This is an odd function. We have drawn the graph first for
x ≥ 0, then reflected about y axis (shown with red colour) and then reflected about x-axis (shown with
blue). The final graph is shown in blue. (Seef figure below).
5

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

Figure 2: Graph of even function f (x) = x3 − x.

Q UESTION : Construct the graph of the function |x| + |x2 − 1|.

Q UESTION : Draw the graph of the function f|x − 1| + |x − 3|.

For a real number r note that |r| is the distance of the point r (on the number line) from the point zero.
Thus for a, b ∈ R |a − b| is the distance between a and b. The following properties we assume that the
reader knows.
For a, b ∈ R: (i) |a| ≥ 0 and |a| = 0 if and only if a = 0.
(ii) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|. (iii) ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b|. (iv) |ab| = |a||b|.
Try to prove (iii) using (ii).

3
We assume that the reader is familiar with the concept of limits and is capable of computing the limits
of elementary functions and can decide when a limit exists or not. Just recall that for a limit to exist at
a point it is necessary that the left and the right hand limits must be equal. The right and the left hand
limits are computed in the following manner.

lim f (x) = lim f (a + h) ( right limit ) lim f (x) = lim f (a − h) ( left limit )
x→a+ h→0 x→a− h→0
h>0 h>0

For example if f (x) = |x + 1| + |x − 1| , then the left hand limit of f at 1 is

lim f (x) = lim f (1 − h) = lim |2 − h| + | − h| = lim 2 − h + h = 2;

x→1− h→0 h→0 h→0
h>0 h>0 h>0

and the right hand limit of f at −1 is

lim f (x) = lim f (−1 + h) = lim |h| + | − 2 + h| = lim h + 2 − h = 2

x→−1+ h→0 h→0 h→0
h>0 h>0 h>0

x2 − 5x + 4
Q UESTION : Evaluate the left and the right limits of f (x) = at 1.
|x − 1|
The following figure is the graph of the greatest integer function f (x) = ⌊x⌋, where x ∈ [−3, 3]. This
is also called the floor of x. Here The greatest integer of x is also denoted by [x].

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

Figure 3: The floor of x where x ∈ [−3, 3].

We also define the ceiling of x, denoted by ⌈x⌉ = ⌊x⌋ + 1 if x in not an integer and ⌈x⌉ = ⌊x⌋ if x is
an integer.
Verify that ⌊x⌋ = max{m ∈ Z | m ≤ x} and ⌈x⌉ = min{n ∈ Z | n ≥ x}.

Q UESTION : Is ⌊x + y⌋ = ⌊x⌋ + ⌊y⌋?

4
2 W EEK 2
We start with formal definition of limit. A function f : A → B is said to tend to a limit ℓ ∈ R when x
approaches to a real number a, written as limx→a f (x) = ℓ if for each ε > 0 there is δ > 0 such that

|f (x) − ℓ| < ε, whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ and x ∈ A.

Note that as |a − b| < r means a ∈ (b − r, b + r). The above definition means that for any ε > 0 there
is δ > 0 such that

f (x) ∈ (ℓ − ε, ℓ + ε) whenever x ∈ (a − δ, a + δ) ∩ A, x ̸= a.

The following examples illustrate how we can choose delta for a given epsilon.
E XAMPLE 2.1. limx→2 x2 + 1 = 5.
Here we have the function f (x) = x2 + 1 and the limit ℓ = 5. Then

|f (x) − ℓ| = |x2 + 1 − 5| = |x − 2||x + 2|

Now if we assume that |x − 2| < 1, then |x| = |x − 2 + 2| ≤ |x − 2| + 2 < 3. Putting this back we get

|f (x) − ℓ| = |x2 + 1 − 5| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 3|x − 2|

This shows that if we choose x such that |x − 2| < 1 as well as |x − 2| < ε/3, then we definitely have
|f (x) − ℓ| < ε. Hence our required δ = min{1, ε/3} (Why?) For example, if ε = 10−2 , then we can
take δ = 1/300. Note that the choice of δ is not unique even any number from the interval (0, 1/300)
can be chosen as δ for ε = 10−1 .

Q UESTION : Obtain δ for given ε for the limit of x2 + 1 at a = −1.

1
Consider the function f (x) = . The function is not defined at x = 0. The limit of f at 0 is not
x
defined because
1 1
lim = −∞, lim = +∞.
x→0− x x→0+ x

The following is the graph of f (x) = 1/x.

5

f
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

5
 1 1
Q UESTION : Draw the graph of the function f (x) = . What is lim ?
|x| x→0 |x|

1 1
Do the same for functions f (x) = and f (x) = 3 . What do you observe about the limit at zero?
x2 x
The following limit laws hold. We take them without proof.

If ℓ, m, c and k are real numbers and limx→a f (x) = ℓ, limx→a g(x) = m, then
1. limx→a (f (x) + g(x)) = ℓ + m
2. limx→a kf (x) = kℓ
3. limx→a (f (x)g(x)) = ℓm
f (x) ℓ
4. lim = provided m ̸= 0.
x→a g(x) m
p √
5. limx→a n f (x) = n ℓ, where n is positive integer and ℓ ≥ 0 if n is even.

A function f : A → B is said to continuous at a ∈ A if limx→a f (x) = f (a). This means that not
only should the limit exist at a but it must be equal to f (a), the value of the function at a. The function
f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point of the domain.
Note that a constant function is clearly a continuous function. If f : R → R and f (x) = x (such a
function is called the identity function) then it is clear that for any a ∈ R

lim f (x) = a = f (a)

x→a

Now apply property 3 given in the box above we get

lim f (x)2 = lim x2 = a2 .

x→a x→a

Hence by induction we have that

lim xn = an , for positive integers n.

x→a

A polynomial function p : R → R is of the form p(x) = A0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn , where

a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R. Now it follows from property 1 given in the box it follows that all polynomial
functions are continuous. Hence by property 4, we have the following
If p and q are polynomial functions, then p/q is a continuous function. Such functions are known as
rational functions. Note that at all those points c where q(c) = 0, the function is not defined, that is c
is not the point of domain.
All trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, logarithm and exponential function are con-
tinuous functions in their domains. The following statements are consequences of the properties of
limits.
Let f and g be be continuous functions defined on a common domain A taking real values.(1) Then
1. f + g and f g are continuous functions. The sum and the product of two continuous functions id
also continuous.
(1)
Such functions are also called real valued functions with real variables.

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 2. if g is such that g is nowhere zero on A then f /g is continuous.

Q UESTION : Evaluate the limits of the following functions

x2 − 2 x2 − 9 sin 3x
(i) lim (iii) lim (v) lim
x→0 3x2 − 5x + 1 x→3 |x + 3| x→0 x
x2 + 3 x4 − 1 x2
(ii) lim (iv) lim (vi) lim
x→3 x2 − 3 x→1 x6 − 1 x→0 cos x − 1

3 W EEK 3
The following rule for finding limits is useful. This is called the Sandwich Theorem.
Suppose that g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing a, except possibly at a
itself. If limx→a g(x) = limx→a h(x) = ℓ, then limx→a f (x) = ℓ.
The following important limit is a consequence of Sandwich Theorem.

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Consider an arc of a unit circle(2) with angle x, 0 < x < π/2, measured in radians.

Q
C

tanx
1
sinx
x

O A B

From the figure we have:

Area of triangle OBP ≤ Area subtended by the angle x from B to P ≤ Area of the triangle OBQ

Thus for 0 < x < π/2:

1 1 1 x
sin x ≤ 12 x ≤ tan x =⇒ 1 ≤ ≤ cos x
2 2 2 sin x
x x
Therefore 1 ≤ lim ≤ lim cos x, and so lim = 1. Since we are considering x
sin x x→0
x→0 x→0+ sin x
in(0, π/2). Since the function f (x) = sin x/x is even for x ̸= 0, the left hand limit at 0 is also 1.
Hence the statement is proved.
(2)
Unit circle means a circle with radius one unit.

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Here is another application of sandwich theorem. We know that sine function stays in the interval
[−1, 1]. Hence for x ̸= 0

|x sin(1/x)| = |x|| sin(1/x)| ≤ |x| =⇒ −|x| ≤ x sin(1/x) ≤ |x| =⇒ lim x sin(1/x) = 0

x→0

since limx→0 |x| = 0.

Composition of functions. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. Then the composition of f
and g is a function denoted by g ◦ f : A → C such that (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
For example if f : R → R is f (x) = x2 + 3x − 5 and g : R → R given by g(x) = sin x, then
(g ◦ f )(x) = sin(x2 + 3x − 5). What is f ◦ g? Obsereve that f ◦ g and g ◦ f are different functions.
One has to be careful in composing functions. For example if f (x) = x2 − 1 and g(x) = log x, then
we cannot write g ◦ f as the range of f can take negative values and log functions is not defined for
negative values.
If f and g are functions such that g ◦ f is defined, if f is continuous at a and g is continuous at f (a),
then g ◦ f is continuous at a. Thus

lim (g ◦ f )(x) = lim g(f (x)) = g(f (a)) = g( lim f (x)).

x→a x→a x→a

Also observe that limx→a f (x) = f (limx→a x). This means that if f is continuous at a, then we can
interchange the limit and function. This is helpful in calculating the limits of functions. The following
is an illustration of this fact.
√ p √
E XAMPLE 3.1. limx→1 x2 + 1 = limx→1 (x2 + 1) = 2.
√
Show that the function f (x) = x is continuous on R≥0 .
We say that:
limx→a f (x) = ∞ when for K > 0 there δ > 0 such that f (x) > K whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.
limx→a f (x) = −∞ when for K > 0 there δ > 0 such that f (x) < −K whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.
limx→∞ f (x) = ℓ when for ε > 0 there L > 0 such that |f (x) − ℓ| < ε whenever x > L.
limx→−∞ f (x) = ℓ when for ε > 0 there L > 0 such that |f (x) − ℓ| < ε whenever x < −L.
We shall use the following limit,

1 x
 
1/x
lim (1 + x) = e = lim 1 + , e = 2.71828 . . .
x→0 x→∞ x

As an application of continuity note that as log function is continuous, we get

loga (1 + x)
lim = lim loga (1 + x)1/x = loga lim (1 + x)1/x = loga e.
x→0 x x→0 x→0

ax − 1
E XAMPLE 3.2. Compute lim .
x→0 x

8
Put ax − 1 = u. Then u → 0 when x → 0. This gives x log a = log(u + 1)(3) . Hence
ax − 1 (log a) u u 1
lim = lim = log a lim = log a lim
x→0 x u→0 log(u + 1) u→0 log(u + 1) x→0 log(1 + a)1/a
1 1 log a
= log a = log a
= = log a.
limx→0 log(1 + a)1/a log limx→0 (1 + a)1/a log e

(1 + x)a − 1
E XAMPLE 3.3. Compute lim , a > 0.
x→0 x
Let u = (1 + x)a − 1 Then x → 0 implies that u → 0. Also we have a log(1 + x) = log(1 + u).
Hence
(1 + x)a − 1 u u a log(1 + x)
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 log(1 + u) x
u log(1 + x) ae
= lim a lim = =a
u→0 log(1 + u) x→0 x e

Note that
lim f (x) = lim f (1/x).
x→∞ x→0+

1 3
x2 + 3x + 4 x2
+ x +4 1 + 3x + 4x2 1
For example lim = lim 3 = lim = .
x→∞ 3x2 + 1 x→0+
x2
+1 x→0+ 3 + x2 3

Q UESTION : Evaluate the following limits.

√ p
3− 4x (iv) lim ( 4x2 − 7x + 4 − 2x)
(i) lim √ x→∞
x→81 9 − x
sin 7x
(v) lim
|x2 + x − 2| tan 3x
x→π
(ii) lim cos ax − cos bx
x→1 x3 − x2 − x + 1 (vi) lim , a ̸= b
x→0 x2
3x + 1
√ (x + 1)5 + (x + 2)5 + · · · + (x + 7)5
(iii) lim (vii) lim
x→∞ 5 + 3 x x→∞ x5 + 7 5
 3x
x
E XAMPLE 3.4. Compute lim .
x→∞ 2+x

 3x
x −2
= (1 + u)−6/u−4 , u=
2+x x+2
Since u → 0− when x → ∞, we have
 3x −6
x 
lim = lim (1 + u)−6/u−4 = lim (1 + u)1/u lim (1 + u)−4 = e−6
x→∞ 2 + x u→0− u→0− u→0−

2x+1 x2
x2 + 5
 
x+3
Q UESTION : Compute lim ; lim .
x→∞ x−2 x→∞ x2 − 5
(3)
We always assume that the log function is with base e.