Bindura University of Science Education

Faculty of Science Education

Science & Mathematics Education Department

DM001: Algebra Lecture 1

Topic: Functions

The words mapping and transformation mean the same as a function. A function is a rule for

operating on a number x to obtain some new number f ( x ) . In general, the input and output

values of a function need not be numbers; they can be members of any sets. For example, if

A={ q , r , s , t } and B= {h ,k , l , m, n } , are sets we may define a function f by specifying its

effect on each member of set A . For instance, we can have f ( q )=m, f ( r )=m, f ( s ) =n and

f ( t )=l .

Activity

Illustrate this mapping on a diagram.

We say that s maps to n or that n is the image of s .

Observations

(i). Not every member of B is an image.

(ii). m is the image of two members of A .

The notation f : A → B means f is a mapping from the set A to the set B . Set A is called the

domain of f and is denoted by Df and B is called the codomain. The setoff image points, a

subset of the codomain is called the range of f and is written R f .

Hence, R f = { y : y=f ( x ) } for some element x in the domain.

Definition: function

A function is a rule which associates with every member of one set (domain) one and only

one member of the codomain. Observe that the domain and the codomain may of course be

the same set. e.g., f : R → R ; g : Z → Z . An important feature of this definition is that it insists

that every member of the domain has an image and no member has two or more images.

Examples

1. Let A={ a , b , c , d } and B= { p , q , r , s } and let g ( a ) =s , g ( c )=s , g ( b )=s and g ( a ) =q .

Determine whether g is a function.

2. Let f be a mapping from Q to Z defined by f ( qp )= p+q . Investigate whether f is a

function.

3. Let f ( x )=x 2 +3 x+ 1.Evaluate (i) f (−3 ) (ii) f ( x−2 ) .

4. Let f ( x )=x 2 and g ( x )=2 x +1.

(i) Is it true that for all a , b ∈ D f f ( a+b ) =f ( a ) + f ( b ) ?

(ii) Determine whether g ( c +d )=g ( c ) + g ( d ) for all c , d ∈ Dg .

Activity: Discuss these examples in groups of 6 and send solutions by 22 Sept 2020.

DM001: Algebra Lecture 2

Topic :Functions

Injective and surjective functions

Definition: Injective function

A function f is said to be injective or one-to one ( 1−1 ) if and only if no two distinct

(different) members of the domain have the same image, i.e., f is 1−1 ⇔ f ( a )=f ( b ) ⇒ a=b .
The statement says different elements of the domain must be mapped to different elements of

the codomain by f . In other words the statement says if aand bhave the same image, they

must really be the same element of the domain.

Examples

x 2−4
1. Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x )= . Show that f is 1-1.
x−2

Solution

Let x 1 , x 2 ∈ D f and suppose that f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 )

x 12 −4 x 22−4
⇒ =
x1 −2 x 2−2

( x 1 +2)( x1−2) (x +2)( x 2−2)

⇒ =¿ 2
(x 1−2) ( x 2−2)

⇒ x 1 +2=x 2 +2

⇒ x 1=x 2.

Hence, f is 1−1.

2. Let A={ 1,3,5 } , B= { 2,10,12,15 } and f : A → B be defined by:

f ( 1 ) =10 , f ( 3 )=2 , f ( 5 )=12.

Decide whether f is 1−1.

Onto or surjective functions

A function f is said to be onto if and only if every member of the codomain is the image of

some element of the domain, i.e., R f is equal to the codomain.

Example
 x+ 2
Determine whether the function f ( x )= is onto.
3 x+ 1

Solution

The central idea is that every element of the codomain must be an image of some element

x ∈ Df .

x+ 2
First, we express x in terms of y . Thus, if we have y= ⇒ 3 xy−x=2− y
3 x+ 1

2− y
⇒ x= .
3 y−1

Now f ( x )=f ( 32−y−1y )= 55(3y (3yy−1)

−1)
.

1
The expression 3 y−1 in the denominator points to the fact the element y= in the
3

codomain has no element in the domain mapping to it. Hence, f is not onto.

When a function f is both injective and surjective, we call it a bijective function.

Activity

1. Show that f ( x )=2 x−3 is bijective.

x 2−9
2. Determine whether f is (i) 1-1 (ii) onto when f ( x )= .
x+3

1
3. Find Df and R f if f is given by f ( x )= .
√ x−3
Discuss these tasks in your groups and submit solutions by 28 Sept 2020

DM001: Algebra Lecture 3

Topic: Functions
Composite functions

Let f : A → Band g :B → C and let x ∈ A , so that f ( x ) ∈ B , we now let g operates on f ( x ) to

get g [ f ( x ) ] ∈ C .

Activity: Discuss and produce a diagrammatic illustration of this description. We regard the

mapping from x ⟼ g [ f ( x ) ] as a single function from set A to set C and we denote this by g° f

, so that g° f =g [ f ( x ) ] . We call the mapping g° f a composite function. When a function is

made up of two or more functions performed successively, it is called a composite function

and is sometimes called a function of a function.

Example

Let f and g be functions from ℝ to ℝ defined by f ( x )=x 3 and g ( x )=1−2 x .

Find (i). g° f (ii) f ° g

Solutions

(i) g° f =g[f ( x ) ] by definition

g° f =g ( x 3 )

¿ 1−2 x 3 .

(ii) f ° g=f [ g ( x ) ]

¿ f ( 1−2 x )

f ° g=(1−2 x )3

Hence, in general that g° f ≠ f ° g .

Tasks for practice

1. Let f ( x )=2 x +3 , g ( x )=5 x+2 , simplify (i) f ° g ( x ) (ii) g° f ( x ).

 2. Let f ( x )=x 2 +3 and g ( x )=√ x−2.

Find (i) D g (ii) R f (iii) g° f

3. Find ( f ¿¿ ° g)(1)¿ and ( g¿¿ ° f )(1)¿ if f and g are defined by

(i). f ( x )= √ x−1, g ( x )=x 3+ 4 (ii) f ( x )=sinx , g ( x ) =lnx.

1
4. Find the domain of f ° g and g° f if f ( x )= √ x +1 , and g ( x )=
x −6

Inverse functions

Let f : A → B be a 1−1 function. Then the function g :B → A denoted by f −1 is called the

inverse of f . Thus g=¿ f −1 reverses the effect of f . In other words, f −1 maps elements of

R f back to D f .

Method for finding the inverse function

(i) In the original function y=f ( x ) , replace x by y and equate to x .

(ii) Make y the subject of the formula. The new function in which y is the subject of

the formula denotes f −1 .

Example

3 x+ 1
Let f ( x )= 2 . Find f −1 .
x −1

Solution

Replacing x by y we get:

3 y+1
=x
y 2−1

3 y +1=x y 2−x
x y 2 −3 y−x−1=0

Observe that this is a quadratic equation in variable y in which a=x ,b=−3 , and

c=−x−1.

Solving for y we get;

3 ± √9−4 x .−(x +1)

y=
2x

2
y=¿ 3± √ 4 x + 4 x+ 9
2x

Observe that the plus-minus sign indicates that f −1 is not single-valued so f is not 1−1.

Hence, f −1 does not exist.

Tasks for practice

Find the inverse functions of f :

1. h ( x )=2 x−3

x−1
2. g ( x )=
2 x +3

3. f ( x )=ln (1+ x ) , x>−1. Explain why it is required that x >−1.

Periodic functions

A periodic function is one whose graph repeats itself at regular intervals, the interval is

called the period of the function.

Activity

If h ( x )=( x−1)2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2,we note that h is periodic with period 2. Draw a graph of h .
Hence, a function is said to be periodic if and only if there exists a number a ∈ R such that

for all x ∈ R, f ( x +a )=f ( x ) . The number a is called the period of f .

Even and odd functions

(i). A functionf is said to be even if and only if ∀ x ∈ D f , f (−x ) =f ( x ) .

(ii). f is said to be odd if and only if ∀ x ∈ D f , f (−x ) =−f ( x ) .

Tasks for practice

Determine whether the following functions are odd or even.

1. f ( x )=x 3 + x ,

2. h ( x )=cosx −x 2,

3. g ( x )=x 2−x 4.

DM001: Algebra Lecture 4

Topic: Quadratic functions

A function of the form y=ax 2+bx + c , where a , b , c ∈ R is called a quadratic function and

the corresponding equation ax 2 +bx +c=0 is called a quadratic equation.

Quadratic equation: an equation whose general form is ax 2 +bx +c=0.

bx c
⇒ x2 + + =0.
a a

Completing the square on LHS gives:

2 bx b2 c b2
x+ + + − =0.
a 4 a2 a 4 a 2
 b 2 ± √ b2−4 ac
(
⇒ x+
2a
= )2a

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
∴ x=
2a

The quantity D=b2−4 ac is called the discriminant. D determines the nature of roots of

the quadratic equation. We can distinguish three possible cases.

Case 1: If D=b2−4 ac >0 , the equation has two different real roots.

Case 2: If D=b2−4 ac=0 , the quadratic equation has repeated or equal roots.

Case 3: If D=b2−4 ac <0, then the quadratic equation has imaginary or complex roots.

Tasks for discussion

1. Determine the nature of the roots of the equations:

(i) x 2−6 x +9=0

(ii) (ii) 4 x2 −12 x−9=0

(iii) x 2−6 x +10=0

2. The roots of the equation 3 x 2+ kx+ 12=0 are equal. Find k .

3. Find a if x 2−5 x+ a=0 has equal roots.

Activities

1. Discuss and derive the general formula for the quadratic equation, i.e., if

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
ax 2 +bx +c=0 then x= .
2a

2. Illustrate the three cases described about the nature of roots on some graphs

Relationships between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation

Let α 1 and α 2be roots of the equation ax 2 +bx +c=0 , i.e.,

2 b c
( x−α 1 ) ( x−α 2 )=0. So ( x−α 1 ) ( x−α 2 )=x + a x + a

2 2 b c
⇒ x −( α 1+ α 2 ) x +α 1 α 2=x + x+
a a

Now comparing coefficients:

−b
x : α 1 + α 2=
a

c
Constants: α 1 α 2=¿ .
a

−b c
Hence, (i) sum of roots¿ and product of roots¿ .
a a

Tasks for practice

1. Write down the sums and products of the roots of the equations:

(i). x 2−3 x+ 2=0 (ii). x ( x−3 )=x +4 (iii) x 2−kx +k 2=0.

2. Write down the equation, the sum and product of whose roots are:

1 1 2
(i). −2 , (ii). ,− (iii). −( k +1 ) , k 2 −3
2 3 5

3. The roots the equation 2 x2 −4 x +5=0 areα and β . Find the value of :

1 1 1 1
(i) + (ii) α 2+ β2 (iii) 2
, 2 .
α β α +1 β +1

4. The roots of x 2−3 x+ 2=0 are α and β . Find the equation whose roots are:

1 1
(i) α +2 , β +2 (ii) , .
α β

5. Find the value of p if one root of x 2+ px +8=0 is the square of the other.

6. For what values of c does the equation 2 x2 +5 x +c=0 have two distinct roots.

7. Prove that if one of the roots of x 2−2 px +q=0 is twice the other then 2 p 2=9 q .
The quadratic function: is a function whose general form is f ( x )=ax2 +bx +c , where

a , b and c are constants.

2 b c
Now f ( x )=a ⌈ x + x+ ⌉
a a

Completing the square on the RHS we get:

b 2 4 ac−b2
(
f ( x )=a ⌈ x+
2a )+
4 a2
⌉

b 2 4 ac−b 2
(
⇒ f ( x )=a x +
2a )+
4a

4 ac−b2 b 2
Observe that
4a
is a constant, say, K and x +
2a ( )
≥ 0 as it is a squared

quantity. Therefore the function has the general form:

4 ac−b 2
f ( x )=K + ( 0∨a positive quantity ) . So if a> 0 then f ( x ) is at least equal to K=
4a

4 ac−b2 −b
, i.e., f (x) has a minimum value of , occurring when x= . The line
4a 2a

−b
x= is a line of symmetry of the graph of the function f ( x )=ax2 +bx +c .
2a

Tasks for practice

1. Determine the greatest or least value of the functions:

(i). x 2−3 x+ 5 (ii). 2−5 x−3 x 2

(iii). 2 x2 −6 x+3 (iv). 3 x−x 2

(v). 6 x 2−x

Topic: Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression whose general form is:

P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +…+ a2 x 2 +a1 x+ a0 ,where a n , a n−1 , … , a2 , a1 ,a 0are real numbers
 called coefficients. We say P ( x ) is a polynomial of degree n ,i.e., the highest power of

x involved in the expression is called the degree of the polynomial P ( x ) .The

coefficient corresponding to the highest power is called the leading coefficient.

Identical polynomials

Two polynomials P( x ) and Q(x ) are said to be identical or identically equal if their

corresponding coefficients are equal. We write: P ( x ) ≡Q ( x ) . So

a n x n +an−1 x n−1 +…+ a2 x2 +a 1 x +a0 ≡b n x n +b n−1 x n−1+ …+b2 x 2+b 1 x +b0 if and only if

a n=bn , an−1=bn−1 , … ,a 2=b2 , a1=b1 , a 0=b 0 . Clearly two identical polynomials have

the same degree.

Examples

1. If a ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) +b ( x−3 ) +c ≡3 x 2+ 4 x−1 , find a , b , c .

2. If a ( x 2 + x−2 ) +b ( x +2 ) +c ( x2−4 ) ≡ x 2+ x +1 , find a, b, c.

Theorem 1: P( x )≡Q( x)⇒ ∀ α ∈ R P ( α ) =Q ( α ) .

When a number is substituted into each of the identical polynomials then the same value must

be obtained.

Task

Find the values of a , b , c such that a ( x +1 )( x−2 )+ b ( x +1 ) ( x+3 ) ≡ x2 −x+2.

Algebraic long division

Divide 4 x6 −4 x 5 + x 4 −16 x+2 by 2 x2 −3 x + 4.

In general, if we divide a polynomial P( x ) by S ( x ) , we get a quotient Q(x ) and a remainder

R ( x ) . So P ( x ) =S ( x ) Q ( x ) + R ( x ) .

Theorem 2: Euclidean property

Given a polynomials P( x ) and S( x ) such that S( x ) is not the zero polynomial then there exist

unique polynomials Q(x ) and R( x ) such that P ( x ) ≡ S ( x ) Q ( x )+ R ( x) where either the degree

of R(x ) is less than the degree of S( x ) or R( x )≡ 0.

Example

Use algebraic long division to find Q and R when P ( x ) ≡2 x 6−x 5 +3 x 4 +7 x3 +2 x+ 3 is divided

by S ( x ) ≡ x 2−2 x +5.

Tasks for practice

1. Find the values of a and b such that a ( 2 x−1 ) +b ( x+ 3 ) ≡ x+17.

2. If a=3 and b=−1 ,solve the equation a ( 2 x−1 ) +b ( x+ 3 )=x +17.

3. If a ( x−1 ) ( x+ 2 )+ b ( x −5 ) +c ( x−3 ) ≡ 3 x 2−2 x +3 ,find a , b , c .

4. Divide P( x ) by S ( x ) , stating the quotient and remainder when:

(i). P ( x ) ≡2 x 4 +5 x 3−2 x2−37 x −28 , S ( x ) ≡ x 2 +4 x+7 .

(ii) P ( x ) ≡2 x 3+ 2 x 2−7 x +2 , S ( x ) ≡ 2 x 2 + x−3

(iii). P ( x ) ≡ 4 x 4−x −1, S ( x ) ≡ 2 x−1

5. Find by division the quotient and remainder when 2 x3 −3 x2−6 x−3 is divided by

2 x+3.

The Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial P( x ) is divided by a linear factor ( x−α ) then

the remainder is P ( α ) .

Proof

By Theorem 2 we can write P ( x ) ≡ ( x−α ) Q ( x ) + R( x )…………..[1] where R ( x ) is some

constant. By Theorem 1, we may substitute any value of x into [1]. So putting x=α ,we

have P ( α ) =R ( α ) . Hence, Ris the number P ( α ) .

Activities for discussion

1. Find the remainder when x 3+ 2 x 2−5 x−4 is divided by (i) ( x +2 )(ii) ( 2 x−1 ) .
2. Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when:

(i) x 3−7 x 2−2 x−4 is divided by x−3.

(ii) x 4 + x 2 +2 is divided by 3 x+ 2.

3. When the polynomial 2 x 4−7 x 3 +5 x2 −3 x +c is divided by x−1 , the remainder is 5,

find c .

4. When x 3+ a x 2−3 x+15 is divided by x−2 , the remainder is 1 ,find a .

Theorem: The Factor Theorem

Let P( x ) be a polynomial and let α ∈ R , then P ( α ) =0 ⇔( x−α ) is a factor.

Tasks for practice

By finding roots factorize as far as possible:

1. x 2−3 x+ 5

2. x 3−3 x 2−2 x + 4

3. x 3−2 x+ x

4. x 3−1

Factors of a 3−b3 and a 3+ b3

First, observe that by the Factor Theorem a 3−b3 =0 when a=b , hence, a−b is a factor

of a 3−b3 . Use algebraic long division to show that:

a 3−b3 ≡(a−b)(a2 +ab+ b2 ).

Next, we also observe that by the Factor Theorem, a 3+ b3=0 when a=−b, so a+ b is a

factor of a 3+ b3 . Once again applying algebraic long division we deduce another useful

identity:

a 3+ b3 ≡( a+b)(a2 −ab+b 2).

Tasks for discussion

Factorise as far as possible

1. x 4 −1

2. x 3+ a3

3. y 3−x 3 .

4. 27 y 3−8 x 3

5. 64+ x3

Topic: Partial Fractions

Rational functions

g (x)
A function f is called a rational function if for all values of x ∈ Df , f ( x )= , where
h( x )

g ( x ) and h( x ) are polynomials. A rational function can be classified as being proper or

improper. We call a rational function proper whenever the degree of the numerator g( x )

is less than the degree of the denominator h(x ). It (referring to f (x) is said to improper

whenever the degree of g( x ) is greater or equal to the degree of h ( x ) .

We often wish to express a rational function f ( x ) as the sum (or difference) of several

fractions. This process is known as putting the expression into partial fractions. We

alternatively refer to this process as decomposing or splitting the rational function into

partial fractions.

Rules for decomposing a rational function into partial fractions

(i). Determine whether f ( x ) is proper or improper.

(ii). If it is improper use algebraic long division of polynomials to express f (x) in the

r (x) r (x)
form: f ( x ) ≡q ( x ) + . Then proceed to split the proper rational function into
h (x ) h ( x)

partial fractions. To do so;

(iii). Consider the nature of the denominator;

Case 1: h( x ) is composed of linear factors of the form:

 h ( x )=( x−a1 ) ( x −a ) … .( x−a n).

r (x) A1 A An
Then use ≡ + 1 +…+ .
h ( x ) x −a1 x−a 2 x−a n

Example

x+17
Express f (x) ≡ in partial fractions.
( x−3)(x +2)

Solution

(i) First, observe that f (x) is a proper rational function. (Justify).

(ii) Next, observe that h(x ) consists of linear factors hence, f (x) will take the form:

A1 A2
f (x) ≡ +
x−3 x +2

⇒ x +17 ≡ A1 ( x+2 )+ A 2( x−3)

We then apply the cover up rule which allows the answer to be written down with

minimum working. The cover up rule states that: to find the numerator corresponding to a

particular factor in the denominator, “cover up” or eliminate that factor in the original

expression and substitute into the rest of the expression that value of x that would make

the factor zero.

In our example to eliminate A1, let x=−2 and we get:

−2+17=A 1 (−2+ 2 )+ A 2 (−2−3)

⇒15=−5 A 2 ⇒ A 2=−3

To ‘cover up’ A2 we let x=3 to get: 3+17= A1 ( 3+2 ) + A 2 (3−3)

⇒20=5 A 1 ⇒ A1=4

x+ 17 4 3
∴ = − .
( x−3 )( x +2 ) x−3 x +2

x2
3. Express f (x) ≡ in partial fractions.
x2 −1

Solution
It can be noted that f (x) is improper , so we first apply algebraic long division of

1
polynomials to f ( x ) ≡1+ 2
x −1

1 A A
Now ≡ 1 − 2
(x +1)(x −1) x +1 x−1

⇒1 ≡ A1 ( x−1 ) + A 2 ( x+ 1)

1
Let x=1 ; 1= A 2 ( 1+1 ) ⇒ A 2=
2

−1
Let x=−1 ; 1= A 1 (−1−1 ) ⇒ A1 =
2

1 1
∴ f ( x )=1+ − .
2( x−1) 2 ( x +1 )

An important limitation of the ‘cover up’ method is that it is only useful when the

denominator h(x ) factorises into distinct linear factors. We now turn to other cases in which

the rational function can appear.

Case 2: h( x ) has repeated linear factors

P( x )
Suppose that we want to express ( x)≡ , P( x ) is of degree less than 3 [Explain
( x−α )2 ( x−β)

A1 A2 A3
why this should be the case]. We write f ( x ) ≡ + 2
+
( x −α ) ( x −α ) ( x−β)

Similarly, a triple factor ( x−α )3 in the denominator will require three terms:

A1 A2 A3
+ + .
x−α (x−α) ( x−α )3
2

Example

x+4
Decompose f ( x ) ≡ into partial fractions.
( x +1 )3

Solution
 x+4 A A2 A3
= 1 + +
( x+1 ) x+1 (x +1) (x+ 1)3
3 2

x +4= A1 ( x+ 1 )2+ A 2 ( x +1 )+ A 3

Let x=−1 :3= A 3

Note that the ‘cover up’ can longer allow us to determine values of the numerators A1 and

A2 . So we turn to other methods of solving identities such comparing coefficients and

substituting with particular values.

Comparing coefficients:

x 2 : 0=A 1

x : 1=2 A1 + A2 ⇒ A2=1

k(constant coefficients): 4= A 1+ A 2+ A 3=0+ 1+3

x +4 1 3
∴ f ( x )≡ ≡ +
( x +1 ) ( x+1 ) ( x+ 1)3
3 2

Tasks for practice

Express in partial fractions:

4 x 2+ 24 x+ 37
1.
( 2 x +5 )2 ( x +3)

7+3 x−x 2
2.
( x+2 )2 ( x−1)

x
3. .
(x−1)¿ ¿

Case 3: h( x ) contains an irreducible quadratic factor

Finally, we deal with cases when the denominator h(x ) contains an irreducible quadratic

factor i.e., the denominator has a quadratic factor that does not factorise into linear

factors.

Example
 2
Express 2 in partial fractions
(x−1)( x +1)

Solution

Observe that the factor x 2+ 1 in the denominator cannot be factorised into linear factors.

2 A1 A2 x+ A 3
Hence, 2 will take the form + 2
(x−1)( x +1) x−1 x +1

2 A1 A2 x+ A 3
Now 2
=¿ + 2
(x−1)( x +1) x−1 x +1

⇒ 2≡ A 1 ( x 2 +1 ) +( A 2 x + A 3 )(x−1)

Note that we can let A2 ,and A3vanish by letting x=1 to get;

2= A1 ( 1+ 1 ) ⇒ A 1=1

Comparing coefficients

x 2: 0=A 1 + A 2 ⇒ A 2=−1

k : 2= A 1− A3 ⇒ 2=1− A3

⇒ A3 =1−2=−1

2 1 x+1
∴ ≡ − 2 .
(x−1)(x +1) x−1 x +1
2

We conclude by noting that a rational function f (x) can consist of a combination of the

three cases we have illustrated and exemplified.

Tasks for discussion

Express in partial fractions

2 x +5
1. 2
x −x−20

x2
2.
(x−1)(x+ 1)

x−3
3.
(x +4 )( x2 −2)
 x (x+ 1)
4.
(x−1)( x−2)

2 x 2+ 4 x−1
5.
(x 2 +2)( x +1)

6
6. 2 2
(x −1)( x−4 )

2 x 2 + x +1
7. .
(x−3)(2 x 2+1)

Topic: Algebraic Inequalities

In this section we deal with the manipulation of simple algebraic inequalities.

Properties if inequalities

Theorem: Properties of ¿

(i) If a> b and b> c then a> c .

(ii) If a> bthen a+ c> b+c

(iii) If a> b and c >0then ac >bc .

(iv) If a> b and c <0 then ac <bc.

Proofs

(i). a> b and b> c

⇒a−b> 0 ,b−c >0

⇒( a−b ) + ( b−c ) >0

⇒a−c >0 ⇔ a>c .

(ii). a> b ⇒ a−b>0

⇒a−c +c−b>0

⇒ a+ c−( b+ c )> 0 ⇔ a+ c> b+c

(iii). a> b and c >0 ⇒ a−b> 0 and c−0>0

⇒( a−b ) . c >0 ⇒ac−bc >0 ⇔ ac> bc .

(iv). a> b ⇒ a−b>0 and c <0 ⇒0−c >0

Hence, ( a−b ) ( 0−c ) >0 ⇒−ac+ bc> 0

−ac >−bc ⇔ ac <bc .

Theorem: Properties of ¿ .

(i). If a< b and b< c then a< c .

(ii). If a< b then a+ c< b+c .

(iii). If a< b and c >0 then ac <bc .

(iv). If a< b and c <0 then ac >bc .

1 1
(v). If a< b and a> 0 then > .
a b

Proofs: Activity for discussion

Use ideas in Properties of ¿ to prove theorem: Properties of ¿

It is often useful to be able to illustrate solutions of inequalities graphically. In that respect

the following definitions are important.

Name Symbol Definition

(i). Open interval (a , b) { x : a< x< b }
(ii). Closed interval [a , b] {x: a≤x≤b}
(iii). Half open intervals ¿ { x : a< x ≤ b }
¿ { x : a ≤ x <b }
(v) Infinite intervals (a , ∞ ) { x : x >a }
¿ { x : x ≥ a}
(−∞ , b) { x : x <b }
¿ { x : x ≤ b}

Inequalities of first degree

In this section we consider inequalities which can be reduced to the form mx+ n>0 , with

m , n∈ R and m≠ 0.

Example
 3 7 x 1 7
Find the solution of the inequality x− − > + x.
5 10 20 5 20

Solution

Get rid of fractions by multiplying throughout by the LCM of the denominators to get:

12 x−14−x> 4+7 x

Grouping terms we obtain: 4 x>18 ⇒ x > 4.5

Hence, the solution set S , is given by: S= { x ∈ R : x >4.5 }.

Tasks for discussion

Determine the natural number solutions of the inequalities:

1. 2(5+ x )≥ 5 x

4 x +10 2x 7 x
2. +5+ < +3 x .
9 3 6

3. x−
{ [
3
5
x+ 4 x −
3 x 21
( +
2 10 )]}>0
Inequalities of second degree

Definition: An algebraic inequality of 2nd degree with one unknown variable is one which can

be reduced to the form a x 2+ bx+ c< 0 or a x 2+ bx+ c ≥ 0 with a , b , c ∈ R .

Example

Find the solution set of the inequality: x 2+ 6 ≥5 x .

Solution

Expressing in the form a x 2+ bx+ c ≥ 0 will result in:

x 2−5 x+ 6 ≥0

Factorising; ( x−2)(x−3) ≥0

x≤2 2 ≤ x≤3 x≥3

( x−2) −¿ +¿ +
( x−3) −¿ −¿ +¿
f (x) +¿ −¿ +¿
Since we have ( x−2)( x−3)≥0 we consider intervals for which f (x) has a positive sign.

Hence, the solution is now stated as:

S= { x ∈ R : x ≤ 2 , x ≥ 3 }

The Method of Intervals

Suppose we to solve the following inequality ( x−x 1 ) ( x−x 2 ) … ( x−x n−1 ) ( x−x n ) ,where x 1 , x 2 ,

…, x n−1 , x n are n different real numbers. Without loss of generality lets suppose that x 1< x2 <¿

…< x n−1< xn . Theses real numbers determine a portion of ℝ in n+1 intervals which can be

represented on the real axis in an increasing order as shown below

[To insert number line here]

Let us analyse the signs of the function f ( x )=( x−x1 ) ( x−x 2 ) … ( x−x n−1 )( x−x n ) in each of the

n+1 intervals.

If x > x n and all the factors of the function f are positive then f (x) is positive for x > x n , thus

we put a positive sign to the right of x n .

If x n−1< x< x n then the factor ( x−x n ) is negative, ∴ f ( x ) will be negative for x n−1< x< x n .

Thus, we put a negative sign in this interval. In the same way we shall get that f (x) is

positive for the interval x n−2< x< x n−1 ,thus we put a positive sign to the right. In this way we

continue alternating the signs in each interval.

[A] The intervals marked with positive signs (without including the endpoints) will be the

solutions of the inequality: ( x−x 1 ) ( x−x 2 ) … ( x−x n−1 ) ( x−x n ) ≥ 0.

[B] If we wish to solve the inequality f (x) ≤ 0 then we take the intervals marked with

negative signs.

Examples

Find the real solution of the inequalities:

1. x +42> x 2 .
2. 2 x2 <5 x +3

Solution

−x 2+ x+ 42>0

−( x2 −x−42)>0 ⇒ x 2−x−42< 0

⇒( x−7)( x +6)<0

Applying method of intervals we get S= { x ∈ R :−6< x <7 }

Activity

Discuss and attempt Example 2.

Rational inequalities

f (x )
A rational inequality is an algebraic inequality in the form where g( x )≠ 0.
g ( x)

Example

2 x−1 x2
Find the real solutions of the inequality: ≥ +1
x−7 x−7

Solution

2 x−1 x2
− −1 ≥ 0
x−7 x−7

x2 2 x−1
− +1 ≤0
x−7 x−7

x2 −( 2 x−1 ) + x−7
≤0
x −7

x2 −x−6
≤0
x−7

(x−3)(x +2)
≤0
x−7

Applying the method of intervals we get S= { x ∈ R : x ≤ 2 , 3≤ x <7 } .

We do not include 7 in our solution set. Explain why this is the case.
Tasks for discussion

Determine the solution set of the inequality:

1 3 1
1. 1+ ≤ 2 + .
x−4 x −7 x +12 x−3

4
2. 2 x+3 ≥ 2−
2 x −3

1 4 x−1
3. x + ≥ 2
x +1 x −1

The Modulus Function.

Definition: The modulus of x ( abbreviated to mod x) and written |x| is defined as follows:

|x|= xwhen x ≥ 0 and |x|=−x when x <0.

Theorem: Properties of the modulus function

(i). |x|= √ x 2

(ii). x ≤|x|

(iii). |x|=|−x|

(iv). |x− y|=| y −x|

(v).|x . y|=|x|.| y|

(vi). |x ± y|≤|x|+| y|

(vii). ||x|−| y||≤|x ± y|

(viii). |x|≤ a ⇔−a ≤ x ≤ a

(ix). |x|>a ⇔ x> a or x ←a

(x). |x|=b ⇔ x=b or x=−b

Note that |x−a|≤b ⇒ x ∈[a−b , a+b]

Example

Solve the inequality: |23 x +1|>6

Solution

From the properties of the modulus we make use property (ix) to get:

2x 2x
+ 1> 6 or + 1←6
3 3

2x
Now + 1> 6
3

2x
⇒ >5
3

⇒ x >7.5

2x
Also + 1←6
3

2x
⇒ ←6−1
3

⇒x ←10.5

Hence, the solution set is: S= { x ∈ R : x ←10.5 , x >7.5 }

Tasks for discussion

Solve the inequalities:

1. |2 x−1|≤3

2. |3 x +1|> x

3. |2 x−4|< x +3

4. |x +1|<|x +2|

5. |x 2−9|<|x 2−4|
Topic: Surds and Indices

Definition: A numerical expression involving a square, cube root or higher order root is

called a surd. E.g., √ 2 , √3 5 , √7 23 are surds because they are not exact, in other words they are

irrational. whereas numerical expressions such as √ 4 , √3 27 are not surds because they are

exact i.e., not irrational.

Examples
2
Simplify 1. ( √ 2+ √ 3)

2. √ 75− √ 27

3. ( 2 √ 3 )2

4. √3 24

Solutions
2
1. ( √ 2+ √ 3 ) =( √ 2+ √ 3 ) ( √ 2+ √3 )

¿ √ 2¿

¿ 2+ √ 6+ √ 6+3

¿ 5+2 √ 6 .

2. √ 75− √ 27=5 √3−3 √ 3=2 √ 3 .

We leave examples 3 and 4 as tasks for discussion.

In general when surds are involved in a fraction, it is better to remove them from the

denominator(s). The process of removing surds from the denominator is called

rationalising the denominator. To rationalise denominator the identity:

a 2−b2 ≡ ( a+ b ) ( a−b ) , is often very useful as illustrated in the following example.

Examples

Simplify as far as possible:

2 √3−1
1. 2.
√3 √5−√ 3
Solutions

2 2 3
1. = √
√ 3 √ 3. √3
2√ 3
¿
3
 2.
√3−1 = ( √ 3−1 ) √5+ √ 3
√ 5−√ 3 ( √5−√ 3 ) ( √ 5+ √3 )

¿
√3 ( √ 5+ √ 3 )−1 √ 5− √ 3
2 2
( √ 5 ) −( √ 3 )

15+3−√ 5− √ 3
¿√
2

Equations involving surds

Equations involving surds are often solved by squaring. However, it should be

remembered that squaring both sides of an equation can introduce false solutions. For

example, consider the equation 2 x=6. Squaring both sides we get:

2
4 x =36⇒x=± 3 . So each solution must be checked in the original equation. E.g.,

2.−3=−6 and2.3=6. Therefore the only valid solution for the equation is x=3.

Examples

Solve the equations: 1. x−√ 3 x+1=1

2. √ 7−3 x=x +11

Solution

1. Grouping terms we get: x−1= √ 3 x +1

Squaring: ( x−1 )2=( √3 x+ 1 )2

x 2−2 x+1=3 x+1

x 2−5 x=0

x ( x−5 )=0

Giving x=0 , x=5 as possible solutions. Now checking each solution in the original equation:

0−√ 3.0+1≠ 1 and so x=0 is not a solution.

Putting ¿ 5 : 5−√ 3.5+1=5−4=1. Hence x=5 is the only solution.

Tasks for practice

 1. Simplify (i) √ 3(3−√ 2) (ii). ( 2 √ 2+1 )( √ 2−2 )

(iii). ( 2 √ 6−3 )2 (iv). ( 2− √ 3 )3

2. Let x=3 √ 2−1, y=2 √ 2 , z=2 √ 3+7 . Simplify:

z y
(i) xy (ii) (iii). .
x z

3. Rationalise the denominators:

√ 10+1 6 1 1
(i). (ii). (iii). +
√ 2+3 √ 5−√ 2 √ 2+1 √2−1
4. Solve the equations:

(i). √ x+1=3 (ii) √ 7−3 x=x +11

(iii). √ ( x+3 )+ 1=√ 2 x +7 . (iv). √ 2 x +1=x −2

Laws of indices

If a 2=a . a then a 2 . a2=a .a . a . a . a=a5. We can deduce from similar illustrations that:

(i). a n . am =an +m

(ii). a n ÷ am =an −m
m
(iii). ( a n ) =anm

It should be noted that a> 0 , m and n are called exponents.

−n 1
(iv). a =
an

(v). a 0=1 , a≠ 0
1
(vi). a n =√n a

n
(vii). In general, a m =( m√ a ) n.

Examples
3 3
1 27 −4
√ x .( √ x ) ( √ t ) .t 2
1. Evaluate (i). 25 −1
2 (ii).( )
8
3
(iii).
x−3
(iv)
√t 5
 3 −1
2 2
m −m
(v). 1 −1
2 2
m +m
1 −1
2. Simplify (i). ( x 2 +1 ) 2 −x 2 ( x 2 +1 ) 2 .

3 1 −1
(ii). ( 2 p+ 3 ) 2 −( 2 p+ 3 ) 2 + ( 2 p+3 ) 2
.

Solutions.

We shall consider 1(iv) and 2(i) and leave the rest as tasks for discussion.
3 4
3
( √ t ) .t 2 t 2 .t 2
1.(iv) = 5 By our product of indices.
√t 5 t 2

7 5
¿ t 2 ÷ t2 [Using a n ÷ am =an −m ]

2
¿ t2

¿t

1 −1 2 x2 −n 1
2(i). ( x +1 ) −x ( x +1 )
2 2 2 2 2 ¿ √ x +1− 2 [Applying a = n ]
√ x +1 a

x2
2
¿ √ x +1 1− 2
x +1([Factorising] )
x 2+ 1−x 2
¿ √ x2 +1 ( x 2 +1 )
1
¿ 2 .
x +1

Topic: Logarithms

Logarithm is another word for an index or power. Now 52=25 i.e., 2 is the power to which

the base 5 must be raised to make 25.

2 is the logarithm which, with base 5 gives 25. This is written log 5 25=2.

Write the statements in logarithmic notation:

(i). 100.6990 =5

(ii). 64=43

1
(iii) =5−3
125

In general, log a b=c ⇔b=a c

Theorem: Laws of logarithms

(i). log a x +log a y=log a xy

(ii) log a x−log a y =log a ( xy )

(iii). log a x p= p log a x

(iv). log a a=1

Proofs

We proof (ii) and leave the rest as exercise

Let log a x= p ⇔ a p=x and let log a y=q ⇔ a q= y

x x
=a p ÷ aq=a p−q ⇔ log a = p−q
y y

Hence, log a x−log a y =log a ( xy ).

Examples

1
1. Find (i) log 3 81 (ii) log 16 2 (iii) log 4
64

2. Write as a single logarithm:

1
(i) log 3+log 4 (ii) 1+log 2
2

Solution

1(i) log 3 81=log 3 3 4=4 log 3 3

¿4
 (ii) Let x=log 16 2 ⇔16 x =2

24 x =21 [ by product of indices]

1
Equating powers: 4 x=1⇒ x=
4

1
Hence, log 16 2= .
4

Change of base rule

A general formula for changing from base a to base b can be derived as follows:

If log a c ≡ x ⇔ c ≡ a x

x log b c
So log b c ≡ log b a ⇒ x=
log b a

log b c
∴ log a c ≡ .
log b a

1
In the special case when c=b we get log a b ≡
log b a

Examples

Solve for x :

1
1. log 2 x−3 log 4 x=1 .
2

2. log 2 x+ log x 2=2

1
3. log 3 ( x+ 1 )−log 9 ( x−5 ) =1
2

4. 9 log x 5=log 5 x

Solutions

1. Let log 2 x= y ⇔ x=2 y

Taking logarithm to base 4 we get:log 4 x=log 4 2 y

log 4 x
y=
log 4 2
 1
But observe that log 4 2= so y=2 log 4 x
2

1
2 log 4 x−3 log 4 x=1
2

3 −3 −3 1
−log 4 x = ⇒ x=4 2 . Hence, x=2 =
2 8

We leave the other tasks for discussion.

Exponential equations

Our knowledge of indices and logarithms allows us to solve equations involving exponents.

These are equations where the unknown is a power/index.

Examples

Solve for x:

1. 5 x =7

2. 4 x +3 ( 2 x )−4=0

Solutions

5 x =7

Taking logs to base e: ln 5 x =ln 7

x ln 5=ln 7

ln 7
x= .
ln 5

x x
2. 4 +3 ( 2 ) −4=0

It should be noted that 4 x =22 x by our product of indices. Thus the equation can be written as:
2
( 2 x ) +3 ( 2 x )−4=0. Then let 22= y

⇒ y 2 +3 y−4=0

( y +4 ) ( y−1 )=0

y=1 0r y=−4

Therefore, 2 x =−4 (no solution. Explain why) and 2 x =1=20. Hence, our solution is x=0.
Tasks for practice

1. Given that 2 x −2− x =4 ,

(a). solve the equation for x ,

(b). show that |2 x + 2−x|=2 √ 5 .