Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

MODULE 2
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES

Introduction
This module will discuss the basic principles of pressure as applied to the plane and
curved surfaces.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students must be able to:
1. Apply the Continuity Equation with reference to the conservation of mass, Energy
Equation with reference to the Euler equation, and Momentum Equation with
reference to the 2nd Law of Newton on motion.

UNIT PRESSURE
The intensity of pressure (known also as unit pressure or simply called pressure) is the
amount of force exerted by a fluid distributed uniformly over a unit area.

𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨

Where:
P- pressure in Pascal (Pa)
F- force in Newton (N)
A- area in square meter (m2)

If the unit pressure is not uniform over the unit area, it can be expressed as the sum of
differential pressure.

𝒅𝑭
𝑷=
𝒅𝑨

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Pascal’s Law
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) states that the pressure is the
same in all directions at any point in a fluid at rest.
It is the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal's Principle) is a principle
in fluid mechanics that states that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid
is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.

Atmospheric, Gage and Absolute Pressures

1. Atmospheric pressure is the weight of all gases above the surface in which it comes in
contact. It is also referred as barometric pressure. Under normal conditions, atmospheric
pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), usually rounded off to 100 kPa
(14.7 psi) by engineers. With increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases.
2. Gage pressure, measured with the use of pressure gauges, is the pressure above or below
atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge pressure indicates a vacuum which cannot go
below –101.325 kPa. Positive gauge pressure indicates that the pressure is above
atmospheric. Gage pressure is also called relative pressure.
3. Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. There is no such
thing as negative absolute pressure. In the absence of all matter (complete vacuum), the
absolute pressure is zero.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Note:
The term pressure, unless otherwise specified, will be used to denote gage or relative
pressure.

Instruments for Measuring Pressure Gage

1. Bourdon Gage
It is a steam type gage; a type of aneroid pressure gauge consisting of a flattened
curved tube attached to a pointer that moves around a dial.

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2. Barograph
It is a recording barometer which provides a continuous record of pressure
over a period of time.

3. Aneroid Barometer
It is a liquid less instrument which is more potable and durable than a mercury
barometer.

4. Manometer
Instruments that use columns of liquids to measure pressures. It is a tube usually
bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which
moves proportionally to changes in pressure

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Example 2-1
Determine the gage pressure at a point in a body of oil (s=0.8) 2.5m below the
free surface. If the atmospheric on the free surface is 101 KPa, what is the corresponding
absolute pressure at the point?
Given:
S = 0.8
Patm = 101 kPa
h = 2.5 m
Required:
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = ?
Solution:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 101 𝐾𝑃𝑎 + 0.8 (9.81 ) (2.5𝑚)
𝑚3
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝑲𝑷𝒂 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid

Consider two points 1 and 2 lie in the ends of fluid prism having a cross-sectional
area dA and length L. The difference in elevation between these two points is h as shown in the
figure. The fluid is at rest and its surface is free. The prism is therefore in equilibrium and all
forces acting on it sums up to zero.

Note: FFS stands for Free Fluid Surface which refers to fluid surface subject to zero
gauge pressure.

The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.

The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and

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volume.

Sum up all the forces in x-direction

but L sin θ = h, thus

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any
two points is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of
the points.
If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 - p1 = 0 or

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points along the same
horizontal plane are equal.
If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 - 0 = γh or simply

This means that the pressure at any depth h below a continuous free fluid surface at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of fluid and the depth h.

Transmission of Pressure
We can write the equation p2 - p1 = γh into the form

which means that any change in the pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change of

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pressure at point 2. In other words, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid.

Pressure Below Layers of Different Liquids

Example 2-2
A tank contains oil of specific gravity=0.80, gasoline of specific gravity =0.90
and seawater of specific gravity =1.03. If the depth of the liquids is 0.50m, 0.80m and 1m for the
oil, gasoline and seawater respectively.
a. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.20m.
b. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.8m.
c. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
Given:
𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.80, 𝑠𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.90, 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.03

ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.50𝑚, ℎ𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.80𝑚, ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.0𝑚

Solution:
a. Pressure at d=1.20m
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃1.2𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.70𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚

𝑷𝟏.𝟐𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

b. Pressure at 1.80m
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃1.8𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3
) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.80𝑚) + 1.03 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑷𝟏.𝟖𝒎 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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c. Pressure at the bottom

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝛾𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3
) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.80𝑚) + 1.03 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Pressure Head
The equation p = γh may be written into the form

where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head.

Pressure head is the height of column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight γ that will
produce an intensity of pressure p.

To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B

To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure head of water

Where:
s = specific gravity
γ = unit weight
ρ = density
Example 2-3
A pressure of 150 KPa is equivalent to how many meters of water? of mercury?
In absolute units, what are the corresponding pressure heads, assuming standard conditions?
Given:
P = 150 kPa
Required:
Pressure heads=? Pressure heads in absolute units =?

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Solution:
𝑃
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑘𝑁
150
𝑚2
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑁
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟗𝟏 𝒎

𝑘𝑁
101
𝑚2
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁
+ 15.291 𝑚
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟗𝒎

𝑃
ℎ𝐻𝑔 =
𝛾𝐻𝑔
𝑘𝑁
150
𝑚2
ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 𝑘𝑁
(13.6)9.81
𝑚3

𝒉𝑯𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝒎

𝑘𝑁
101
𝑚2
ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁
+ 1.124 𝑚
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝑯𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝒎

Properties of Water
Specific gravity, s = 1.0
Unit weight, γ = 9.81 kN/m3 (or 62.4 lb/ft3 in English system)
Density, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 (or 1.94 slugs/ft3 in English system)
Manometers
Manometer is a simple and inexpensive device of measuring pressure and pressure
difference. It is usually bent to form a U-tube and filled with liquid of known specific gravity.
The surface of the liquid will move in proportion to changes of pressure.

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Types of Manometer
1. Open Manometer
Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids of different
specific gravities. It is used to measure pressure. Example of open manometer is shown
below.

2. Differential Manometer
Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure difference.
Frequently in hydraulic problems, difference in pressure is more useful information than
the pressure itself.

Steps in Solving an Open Manometer Problems

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer system approximately to scale. Number in order all
levels of contact of the different fluids, starting with level 0 at the free surface.
2. Decide on the fluid of which head are to be expressed. Water is more desirable. In
most cases, we suggest to use head in water even if there is no water in the system
3. Starting from level 0 (zero gage pressure) at free surface, proceed from level to level
adding or subtracting as the elevation increases or decreases giving due regard to the
specific gravity of the fluid.

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Example 2-4
The manometer shown in the figure is tapped to pipeline carrying oil (sp. Gravity= 0.85).
Determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.

Example 2-5
Calculate the pressure at the center of the pipe.

Example 2-6
In the figure, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (s=0.85). Determine the difference in
pressure. Note: h= 68 cm

Required: 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑛 = ?

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Solution:
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
Pm -9.81 𝑚3
(1)(z) – 9.81 𝑚3
(0.85)(0.68m) + 9.81 𝑚3
(1)(v) = Pn
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
Pm – 9.81 𝑚3
(z) – 5.67018 +9.81 𝑚3
v = Pn

Pm – Pn = 5.67018 + 9.81 (z-v)

Y+v = x + z
1.7m + v= 0.68m + z
z- v = 1.02m
Pm – Pn = 15.60 kPa

Piezometer
Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of pressure
conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, piezometer is
not practical to use in lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be used to measure gas
pressure.

From the figure above, three piezometers A, B, and C are attached to a pressure conduit
at bottom, top, and side, respectively. The column of liquid at A, B, and C will rise at the same
level above M indicating a positive pressure at M. Also, the piezometer D measures the negative
pressure at N.
Limitations of Piezometer
• Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes.
• Gas pressures cannot form a free surface.

Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on any plane surface submerged in a fluid of specific weight 𝜸
is equal to the product of the area of the surface and the intensity of pressure at its center of
gravity.
If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface
submerged in a liquid, the total hydrostatic force is
𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
Where:

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P is the uniform pressure in Pa

A is the area in m2
F is the force in Newton
In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the total pressure can be
found by the following formula:

̅𝑨
𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉
Where:
γ – unit weight of the liquid in N/m3
ℎ̅ – vertical distance from the liquid surface to the centroid of the body in m
A – cross- sectional area of the body in m2

• It is convenient to use 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴, if the plane is submerged in a single liquid and without
gage pressure at the surface.
• If the plane is submerged under layers of different liquids or if the gage pressure at the
liquid surface is not zero, apply the formula

• Distance of the center of pressure , yp

Where

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• Therefore,

or

but

where IG -moment of inertia of the submerged area about a horizontal line through
center of gravity (also known as the centroidal moment of inertia)
e - eccentricity or the distance between the center of pressure and the
center of gravity
- located below the center of gravity

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Example 2-7
A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5m wide is 3m high. It is
submerged in oil having a specific gravity of 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2m.
Determine the magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the
gate.
Given:
b= 1.5 m
h= 3m
d = 2m
s = 0.82
Required:
F =?
𝑦𝑝 = ?

Solution:
a. 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
𝑘𝑁 1 1
𝐹 = (0.82) (9.81 ) [ 2𝑚 + (3𝑚)] ( )( 1.5𝑚)( 3𝑚)
𝑚3 3 2

𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟓𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑵
b. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒
𝐼𝐺 𝑏ℎ3 (1.5𝑚)(3𝑚)3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒= ; 𝐼𝐺 = = = 1.125𝑚4
𝐴𝑦̅ 12 12
1.125 𝑚4
𝑒= 1 = 0.25𝑚
(1.5𝑚)(3𝑚)[ 2𝑚+ (3𝑚)]
3

1
𝑦𝑝 = [ 2𝑚 + (3𝑚)] + 0.25𝑚
3
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝒎

Example 2-8
A vertical circular gate 1m in diameter is subjected to pressure of liquid of
specific gravity of 1.40 on one side. The free surface of the liquid is 2.60m above the uppermost
part of the gate. Calculate the total force on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.
Required:
𝐹 =?
𝑦𝑝 =?

Solution:
a. 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
𝑘𝑁 𝜋
𝐹 = (1.40) (9.81 ) [ 2.60𝑚 + 0.5 𝑚]( 4 )1𝑚2
𝑚3

𝑭 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟑𝟗 𝒌𝑵

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b. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒
𝐼𝐺 𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋(0.5𝑚)4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒= ; 𝐼𝐺 = = = 0.049𝑚4
𝐴𝑦̅ 4 4
𝐼𝐺 0.0494𝑚4
𝑒= = 𝜋
(1𝑚)2 [ 2.60𝑚+ 0.5 𝑚]
= 0.020 m
𝐴𝑦̅
4

𝑦𝑝 = [ 2.60𝑚 + 0.5 𝑚] + 0.020𝑚

𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝒎

Example 2-9
An inclined circular gate with water on one side is shown in the figure. Determine the
total resultant force as well as the location.

Force Components on Submerged Curved Surfaces

Oftentimes, it is more convenient and practical to deal with the force components acting
on such surface rather than with the resultant or total surfaces.
This is particularly true with a submerged curved surface.

𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
where

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VABCD- the volume of liquid ABCD obtained by getting the

product of the sectional area curve ABCD and the length
of the curve surface normal to the plane of the paper
- the location of this force component is at the centroid cg of
the volume ABCD

Case 1- Fluid is Above the Curve Surface

Case 2- Fluid is Below the Curve Surface

𝐹𝐻 = 𝑃𝑐𝑔 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴

𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦)

where A –vertical projection of the submerged curve (plane area)

Pcg – pressure at the centroid of A

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Case 3- Fluid below and Above the Curve Surface

̅̅̅1 𝐴1
𝐹𝐻1 = 𝛾ℎ

𝐹𝑉1 = 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

̅̅̅2 𝐴2
𝐹𝐻2 = 𝛾ℎ

𝐹𝑉2 = 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

Example 2-10
The crest gate shown consist of a cylindrical surface of which AB is the base supported
by a structural frame hinged at O. The length of the gate is 10m. Compute the magnitude and
location of the horizontal and vertical components of the total pressure on AB.

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Therefore, FV is acting 8.57m from O.

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Example 2-11
The submerged curve AB is one quarter of a circle of radius 2m and is located on
the lower corner of a tank as shown. The length of the tank perpendicular to the sketch is 4m.
Find the magnitude and location of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force
acting on AB.

Solution:
a. 𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐻 = (9.81 ) (5𝑚)(4𝑚)(2𝑚)
𝑚3
𝑭𝑯 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐. 𝟒 𝒌𝑵

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒

𝐼𝐺 𝑏ℎ3 (4𝑚)(2𝑚)3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒= ; 𝐼𝐺 = = = 2.67𝑚4
𝐴𝑦̅ 12 12
1.125 𝑚4
𝑒= = 0.067𝑚
(4𝑚)(2𝑚)(5𝑚)

𝑦𝑝 = 1𝑚 + 0.067𝑚

𝒚𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝒎

Therefore, FH = 392.4 kN acting at 1.067m below B.

b. 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑉 = (9.81 3
) (8𝑚2 + 3.14𝑚2 )(4𝑚)
𝑚
𝑭𝑽 = 𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝑵

𝐴𝑥̅ = 𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2
(8𝑚2 + 3.14𝑚2 )𝑥̅ = 8𝑚2 (1𝑚) + 3.14𝑚2 (0.849𝑚)
̅ = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕 𝒎
𝒙
Therefore, FV = 437.13 kN acting at 0.957m to the right of A.

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Hoop Tension in Circular Pipes and Tanks

where D- inside diameter of the pipe in m

FB – the bursting force in N/m
Pi- internal pressure in Pa
Pe- external pressure
T- tensile force in N/m

• By summation of forces, the tensile force in the wall is

• The unit stress in the pipe wall is

where t- thickness of the pipe wall

Important:
1. If the outside surface of the pipe line is exposed to the atmosphere or Pe=0
2. If Pe>Pi, the values of the T and S becomes negative implying that the pipe is now
subjected to a compressive stress and this will create a collapsing force.

1. The theoretical thickness,

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where
tt- theoretical thickness
Sa – allowable stress
T- tensile force in the wall

2. The bursting force,

where P’- pressure due to water hammer

Water hammer is a fluid dynamics phenomenon cause by a sudden closure
of valve in the line.
5. Wooden- Stave Pipes
where Sa- allowable stress in hoop
Ah- cross sectional area of the hoop
T- tensile force in the wall
S- spacing of metal hoops

Example 2-12
A pipeline carrying oil under a head of 235 cm is horizontally submerged in water to a
depth of 1.5m. If the inside diameter of the pipe is 250cm and has a thickness of 6mm, determine
the pipe wall stress (s.g. =0.82).

DAMS
The structure that block the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. Some dams divert
the flow of river water into a pipeline, canal or channel.

Purpose of a Dam
1. Irrigation and Drinking
2. Power Supply
3. Navigation
4. Flood Control

Types of Dams
1. Gravity
2. Embankment
3. Arch
4. Buttress

Gravity Dam
It uses only the force of gravity to resist water pressure. The gravity dam must consist of
a mass so heavy that the water in a reservoir cannot push the dam downstream or tip it over.

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

Embankment Dam
A gravity dam formed out of loose rock earth or a combination of these materials.

Arch Dam
Concrete or masonry structures that curve upstream into a reservoir stretching from one
wall of a river canyon

Buttress Dam
Consist of a wall or face supported by several buttresses on the downstream side. The
distance of each buttress is 6-30 m.

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

Analysis of Gravity Dam

A dam is subjected to hydrostatic force due to water which is raised on its upstream side.
These forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation and overturn it about its
downstream edge or toe.
These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam and gravitational forces
which causes a moment opposite to overturning moment, OM.
These may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base.

Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam

1. Weight of the Dam
2. Water Pressure
3. Uplift Pressure
4. Wave Pressure
5. Earth and Silt Pressure
6. Earthquake Forces
7. Ice Pressure

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

Steps in the Analysis of Gravity Dams

I. Consider 1unit (1m) length of the dam (perpendicular to the sketch)
II. Determine all the forces acting
A. Vertical Forces
1. Gravity Force (Weight of the Dam)
• The largest force acting on the mass of the dam is its weight or gravity force.
• The weight or the gravity force is

𝑾𝒄 = 𝜸𝒄 𝑽𝒄 ; 𝑾𝟏 = 𝜸𝒄 𝑽𝟏 ; 𝑾𝟐 = 𝜸𝒄 𝑽𝟐 ; 𝑾𝟑 = 𝜸𝒄 𝑽𝟑

where Wc- weight of the concrete

𝜸c – unit weight of the concrete
𝜸c = 23.54 KN/m3
Vc- volume of the concrete

2. Gravity Force (Weight of Water if any)

𝑾𝒘 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑽𝒘 ; 𝑾𝟒 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑽𝟒
Where
Ww- weight of the water
𝜸w – unit weight of the water
𝜸w = 9.81 KN/m3
Vw- volume of the water
3. Hydrostatic Uplift
• Some water under pressure find their way between the base of the dam and the
foundation.
• This causes part of the total weight of the structure to be supported by water
which consequently reduces the reaction of the foundation and the general
stability of the dam. The effect is called hydrostatic uplift.
• In any design, the amount of uplift force U is mainly a matter of judgment
based upon the following factors:
❖ The physical characteristics of the foundation.
❖ The measures taken to prevent percolation.
❖ The projected efficiency of foundation drains.
❖ The method of construction to be employed.
• Based from the design and construction of existing dam, the acceptable
practice is to consider the full hydrostatic pressure applied over two-thirds of
the horizontal base area.
4. Weight of other permanent structures

B. Horizontal Forces
1. Total Hydrostatic Force acting at the vertical projection of the submerged portion
̅𝑨
𝑭𝑯 = 𝜸𝒉

2. Wind Pressure
3. Wave Action
4. Floating Bodies
5. Seismic Force

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

• Earthquake occurs in practically all parts of the world and hence, adequate
allowance should be made to include seismic forces in the design of gravity
dams.

III. Solve for the reaction

A. Vertical Reaction, Ry
𝑹 𝒚 = ∑ 𝑭𝑯
𝑹𝒚 = 𝑾𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐 + 𝑾𝟑 + 𝑾𝟒 − 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟐

B. Horizontal Reaction, Rx
𝑹 𝒙 = ∑ 𝑭𝑯
𝑹𝒙 = 𝑭

IV. Moment About the Toe

A. Righting Moment, RM (rotation towards the upstream side)
𝑹𝑴 = 𝑾𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑾𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + 𝑾𝟒 𝒙𝟒

B. Overturning Moment, OM (rotation towards the downstream side)

𝑶𝑴 = 𝑭𝒚 + 𝑼𝟏 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑼𝟐 𝒛𝟐

V. Location of Ry, 𝑥̅
𝑹𝑴 − 𝑶𝑴
̅=
𝒙
𝑹𝒀
VI. Factor of Safety
A. Against Sliding, FSS
𝝁𝑹𝒚
𝑭𝑺𝒔 = > 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑹𝒙
Where µ - coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation

B. Factor of Safety Against Sliding, FSO

𝑹𝑴
𝑭𝑺𝒐 = > 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑶𝑴
VII. Foundation Pressure
𝐵
A. For 𝑒 ≤ 6

𝑹𝒚 𝟔𝒆
𝒒= − (𝟏 ± )
𝑩 𝑩
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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

Note: Use (+) to get the stress at point where 𝑅𝑦 is nearest. A negative stress indicates
compressive stress and a positive stress indicates a tensile stress.
Since soil cannot carry any tensile stress, the result is invalid if the stress is positive and
this will happen if 𝑒 > 𝐵/6.

𝐵
B. For 𝑒 > 6

𝑥̅ = 𝑎⁄3

𝟐𝑹𝒚
𝒒𝒆 =
̅
𝟑𝒙
Example 2-13
The section of a concrete gravity dam is shown in the figure. The depth of the water at
the upstream side is 6m. Neglect hydrostatic uplift and use unit weight of concrete equal to 23.5
KN/m3. Coefficient of friction is 0.6. Determine the following (a) factor of safety against sliding
(b) factor of safety against overturning.

Example 2-14
The section of the masonry dam is shown. Assuming uplift pressure varies
linearly from maximum hydrostatic pressure at the heel to zero at the location of the drain,
determine the (a) location of the resultant force (b) factor of safety against sliding if 𝝁 = 0.75 (c)
factor of safety against overturning.

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

BUOYANCY
The force that causes objects to float. The buoyant force BF is acting at the center of
buoyancy.

Archimedes Principle
Anybody immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force) equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid.
Also known as the Law of Hydrostatics, applies to both floating and submerged bodies to
all fluids.

Where
BF- buoyant force
WB- weight of the body
𝜸B – unit weight of the body
𝜸F – unit weight of the fluid
VB- volume of the body
VD- volume displaced

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting and apply conditions of static
equilibrium:

• For homogenous solid body of volume V floating in a homogenous fluid at rest

If the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area A such as vertical
cylinders

• If the body is of uniform cross-sectional area A, the area submerged AS

Example 2-15
An iceberg having specific gravity of 0.92 is floating in seawater of specific
gravity 1.03. If the volume of ice above the water surface is 1000 m3 , what is the total volume of
the ice?

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

Given:
𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 0.92
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.03
𝑉𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 = 1000𝑚3
Required:
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = ?

Solution:
𝐵𝐹 − 𝑊𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 0
𝛾𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 − 𝛾𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 0
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
(1.03) (9.81 ) (𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 − 1000𝑚3 ) − 0.92 (9.81 ) 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 0
𝑚3 𝑚3
10.1043𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 − 10104.3 − 9.0252𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 0

𝑽𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒈 = 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝒎𝟑

Example 2-16
A wooden buoy of specific gravity 0.62 is 50mm x 50mm x 3m long and is made
to float in sea water of specific gravity 1.025. How many N of steel of specific gravity 7.85
should be attached to the bottom to make the buoy float with exactly 450mm exposed above the
water surface?

Given:
𝑠𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 0.62
𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 7.85
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.025
Wood dimensions = 50mm x 50mm x 3m long
Length exposed = 450 mm
Required:
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = ?
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐵𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 𝐵𝐹𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 − 𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 − 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

𝐵𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛾𝑠𝑤 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑁
𝐵𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1.025 (9810 )𝑉
𝑚3 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝐵𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 10055.25 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑁

𝐵𝐹𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝛾𝑠𝑤 𝑉𝐷
𝑁
𝐵𝐹𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 1.025 (9810 ) (0.05𝑚)2 (2.55𝑚)
𝑚3
𝐵𝐹𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 64.1 𝑁

𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝛾𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑉𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑

𝑁
𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 0.62(9810 )(0.05𝑚)2 (3𝑚)
𝑚3
𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 45.62 𝑁

𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑁
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 7.85 (9810 )𝑉
𝑚3 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 77008.5 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

10055.25 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 64.1 𝑁 − 45.62 𝑁 − 77008.5 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0.000276 𝑚3

𝑁
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 7.85 (9810 ) (0.000276 𝑚3 )
𝑚3
𝑾𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟓 𝑵

Stability of Floating Bodies

A floating body in equilibrium is supported by a buoyant force which is equal ,
opposite to and along the same line of action as its gravity or weight.
A floating body may be classified in any one of the following conditions of
equilibrium:
1. Stable equilibrium
2. Neutral equilibrium
3. Unstable equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
If the body will be restored back to its original position after having been slightly
displaced, either linearly or rotationally.

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It will always be maintained if the position of the center of gravity, G of the floating body
is below the center of buoyancy Bo.

Neutral Equilibrium
Homogenous cylinder or sphere having the center of gravity at its geometrical centroid
will float in a condition of neutral equilibrium.

The buoyant force BF and the weight W will always be concurrent. There will be no RM or
OM.

Unstable Equilibrium
It continues moving in the direction of the displaced motion. It is possible for a floating body
where Bo is below G except in the case of a homogenous sphere or cylinder.

Elements of Floating Body

W-weight of the body
BF-buoyant force (always equal to W for floating body)
G- center of gravity of the body
Bo- center of buoyancy in the upright position (centroid of the displaced body)
Bo’- center of buoyancy in the tilted position

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VD- volume displaced

M- metacenter, the point of intersection between the line of action of the buoyant force
and the axis of the body
c- center of gravity of the wedges (immersion and emersion)
s- horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the wedges.
v- volume of the wedge immersion
𝜽 – angle of tilting
GBo- distance from G to Bo
MBo- distance from M to Bo
MG – metacentric height, distance from M to G
(use – if G is above Bo and + if G is below Bo)
Note: M is always above Bo
Value of MBo
• The stability of the body depends on the amount of righting moment which in turn is
dependent on the metacentric height MG.
• When the body tilts, the center of buoyancy shifts to a new position (Bo’).

𝒗𝒔 𝑰 𝑩𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑴𝑩𝒐 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝑩𝒐 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝑩𝒐 = (𝟏 + )
𝑽𝑫 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑽𝑫 𝟏𝟐𝑫 𝟐

Moment

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

• The righting or overturning moment:

𝑹𝑴 𝒐𝒓 𝑶𝑴 = 𝑾(𝒙) = 𝑾(𝑴𝑮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)

Where
• RM –righting or restoring moment that will bring back the body to its original
position
• OM or UM- overturning or upsetting moment which will cause the initial motion
to continue in the direction of the displacement until the vessel capsizes. This is
the case of unstable equilibrium.

Example 2-17
A rectangular scow, 9m wide 15m long and 3.6m high has a draft of 2.4m in seawater. Its
center of gravity is 2.70m above its bottom. (a) Determine the initial metacentric height. (b) If
the scow tilts until one side is just at the point of submergence, determine the righting or the
overturning moment.

END OF MODULE ACTIVITY

1. Three liquids of different densities are poured carefully into an open cylindrical container
with radius of 20 cm. The volume of each liquid is 12566.37 cc. Liquids 1, 2, and 3 have
specific gravities of 0.82, 1, and 1.20 respectively. What is the pressure 12 cm from the
bottom of the container?
2. Water at 10°C is the fluid in the pipe shown below and mercury is in the manometer
fluid. If the deflection ∆h is 60 cm and 𝓁 is 180 cm, what is the gage pressure at the
center of the pipe?

3. What is the pressure of the air in the tank if 𝓁1 = 40cm, 𝓁2 = 100 cm, and 𝓁3 = 80cm?

4. A block of wood 30 cm square in cross section and 60 cm long weighs 318 N. Will the
block float on water with sides vertical as shown?

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

5. Calculate the P necessary to just start opening the 2-m wide gate.

6. A cubical box 1.50 m. on each edge has its base horizontal and is half filled with water.
The remainder of the box is filled with air under a gage pressure of 82 kPa. One of the
vertical sides is hinged at the top and is free to swing inward this box is submerged at a
certain depth below the water surface.
a. What is the total horizontal force acting on the side inside the box
b. To what depth can the top of this box can be submerged in an open fresh water
without allowing any water to enter?
c. What is the net pressure over the top of the box?
7. A square plate having one on its side equal to 3 m is immerse in a water surface in a
vertical position such that the two edge of the square would be horizontal in order that the
center of pressure shall be 8 cm. from the center of the gravity
a. How far below the water surface should the upper plate be submerged?
b. What is the distance of the center of pressure from the water surface?
c. Determine the hydrostatic force acting on the plate at this position.
8. Determine the force required to open the quarter-cylinder gate shown. The weight of the
gate is 50kN acting 1.2m to the right of O.

9. A hemispherical dome is filled with oil (s=0.9) and is attached to the floor by eight
diametrically opposed bolts. What force in each bolt is required to hold the dome down,
if the dome weighs 59 kN?

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Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

10. The gate shown is 3m long. Find the magnitude and location of the horizontal and
vertical components of the force on gate AB.

REFERENCES
A. Books
Potter, M.C., et al, Mechanics of Fluids 5th ed, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd, 2017
Crowe, C.T., et al. Engineering Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 2005
Gillesania, DI T., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, GPP Gillesania Printing Press, 2003
Dela Fuente, R., Hydraulics, Merriam & Webster Inc, 1991
B. Websites
www. learnmechanical.com
www. mathalino.com
www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/
www.tutorhelpdesk.com

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