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The Seismic Wavefield Volume I: Introduction and Theoretical Development

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The Seismic Wavefield

The Seismic Wavefield provides a guide to the understanding of seismograms in terms

of physical propagation processes within the Earth. The focus is on the observation of
earthquakes and man-made sources, from the near source region out to thousands of
kilometres from the source, for both body waves and surface waves. Most existing advanced
textbooks on seismology deal mainly with the theory of seismic wave propagation, and only
a few deal with the observations: The Seismic Wavefield is a comprehensive text that links
theory with observation. Volume I provided an general introduction and a development of
general theory; this material is exploited in Volume II to look at the way in which observed
seismograms relate to the propagation processes.

Volume II covers the development of the seismic wavefield from local observations through
regional to teleseismic distances, and is illustrated with many examples of seismograms
from around the world. The treatment starts with strong ground-motion and then moves
to the study of regional phases and their interaction with structure. The influence of the
upper mantle discontinuities on far-regional observations and surface multiples provides a
link to teleseismic propagation. The nature of global wave propagation is discussed in some
detail with specific treatments of mantle phases, core phases and surface waves. Methods
of seismogram analysis are also treated including event location and source mechanism
estimation and methods for detecting and identifying seismic phases. The last part of the
book is concerned with understanding the 3-dimensional structure of the Earth through the
use of numerical simulations and particularly seismic tomography or regional and global
scales.

The Seismic Wavefield has been developed from numerous graduate-level courses given by
the author, and the combination of observation and theoretical development with a strong
visual focus will greatly appeal to graduate students in seismology. The two volumes will also
be valuable to researchers and professionals in academia and the petroleum industry.

Brian Kennett is a Professor in the Seismology Group at the Research School of Earth
Sciences, The Australian National University and Director of the Australian National Seismic
Imaging Resource research facility. Professor Kennett’s research interests involve the
development of interpretational techniques for seismic records, with the object of extracting
detailed information about the nature of the seismic velocity distribution within the Earth,
and the character of seismic sources. He is currently President of the International Associ-
ation of Seismology and Physics of the Earth’s Interior (IASPEI), and was Vice-President from
1991–1999. He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and the Australian Academy of
Sciences, and an Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society. Professor Kennett was an Editor
of Geophysical Journal International from 1979–1999, and since 1985 has been an Associate
Editor of Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. He is the author of Seismic Waves in
Stratified Media (1983; Cambridge University Press), compiler of the IASPEI 1991 Seismological
Tables, and author of more than 160 research papers.
The Seismic Wavefield
Volume I: Introduction and Theoretical Development

B.L.N. KENNETT
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA http://www.cup.org
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain

Cambridge University Press 2001

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press

First published 2001

Printed in the United States of America

Typefaces Lucida Bright + Lucida NewMath (Y&Y) SystemALTE X2
[AU]

A catalog record for this book is available from

the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 0 521 05218 paperback

ISBN 0 521 05210 paperback
Contents - Volume 1

1 Introduction page 1
1.1 Seismic signals 1
1.2 Seismic noise 8
1.3 Understanding the seismic wavefield 16
Part I: Seismic Waves and the Structure of the Earth 19
2 Earthquakes and Earth Structure 21
2.1 The distribution of seismic sources 21
2.2 The major elements of Earth structure 28
2.2.1 Lithosphere and uppermost mantle 32
2.2.2 Mantle 33
2.2.3 Core 35
3 Seismic Waves 37
3.1 Body waves 37
3.1.1 Interaction of seismic waves with the Earth’s surface 42
3.1.2 The influence of an internal boundary 47
3.1.3 Ray representations of seismic propagation 54
3.2 Guided and surface waves 59
3.3 Seismic wavetrains 64
4 Seismic Sources 66
4.1 Nature of seismic sources 66
4.1.1 An explosion 68
4.1.2 Displacement on a fault 68
4.2 Description of slip on a fault 70
4.3 Body-wave radiation patterns 72
5 Seismic Phases 78
5.1 Description of seismic phases 78
5.1.1 Notation for seismic phases 78
5.1.2 Seismic ray properties in a spherical Earth 81
5.2 Rays and seismic phases 85
5.2.1 Crustal and upper mantle propagation 85

v
vi Contents - Volume 1

5.2.2 Major phases from an intermediate depth event 86

5.2.3 Relation to observed arrivals 93
5.3 Propagation processes for seismic phases 97
5.3.1 Description of the source 97
5.3.2 Passage through the Earth 99
5.3.3 Processes near the receiver 102
5.3.4 Composite representation of seismic phases 103
6 Building a Seismogram 105
6.1 Seismogram analysis 105
6.2 Higher frequency aspects of the wavefield - body waves 107
6.3 Lower frequency aspects of the wavefield - surface waves 112
6.4 Modelling of teleseismic arrivals 121
Part II: Seismic Wave Propagation: General 127
7 Stress and Strain 129
7.1 Continuum representation 129
7.2 Stress 130
7.3 Equation of motion 131
7.4 Relating stress and strain 132
7.5 The effect of prestress 133
7.6 Representation of sound waves in a fluid 134
8 Seismic Waves I - Plane Waves 136
8.1 The elastodynamic equation 136
8.2 Plane waves 137
8.2.1 Isotropic media 138
8.2.2 Anisotropic media 139
8.3 Attenuation 145
9 Seismic Waves II - Wavefronts and Rays 152
9.1 Wavefronts and ray series 153
9.2 Ray theory for seismic waves 154
9.2.1 Wavefronts and rays 156
9.2.2 Amplitude relations 158
9.3 Rays in isotropic media 160
9.4 Boundary conditions for rays 163
9.A Appendix: Behaviour near a wavefront 166
10 Rays in Stratification 168
10.1 Rays in horizontal stratification 168
10.1.1 Vertical wavespeed variation 168
10.1.2 Travel times 169
10.2 Rays in spherical stratification 170
10.2.1 Radial wavespeed variation 170
10.2.2 Travel times 171
Contents - Volume 1 vii

10.2.3 Amplitudes 174

10.2.4 Properties of travel time curves 176
10.2.5 Near-distances 186
10.2.6 Depth corrections 187
11 Seismic Sources 189
11.1 Equivalent forces and moment tensor densities 189
11.2 The representation theorem 192
11.3 Source representation 194
11.3.1 Explosion sources 195
11.3.2 Earthquake faulting 196
11.4 The moment tensor and source radiation 197
11.4.1 Point dislocation sources 199
11.4.2 Radiation into an unbounded medium 201
11.4.3 Influences on radiation patterns 205
11.A Appendix: Principal Values of the Moment Tensor 206
12 Waves in Stratification 208
12.1 Horizontal stratification 208
12.1.1 Coupled equations for displacement and traction 209
12.1.2 Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 211
12.2 Spherical stratification 215
12.2.1 SH waves 216
12.2.2 P-SV waves 220
12.2.3 A fluid zone 221
12.3 The influence of velocity gradients 221
12.3.1 Uniform approximations for a smoothly varying medium 222
12.3.2 Relation to upgoing and downgoing wave decomposition 228
12.3.3 Gradient corrections 231
12.3.4 Spherical stratification 233
12.A Appendix: Upgoing and downgoing waves in anisotropic media 236
13 Reflection and Transmission 240
13.1 A free surface 240
13.2 A solid-solid interface 246
13.2.1 SH waves 247
13.2.2 Coupled P and SV waves 249
13.2.3 The variation of the interface coefficients with slowness 253
13.2.4 Small contrasts at an interface 256
13.3 A fluid-solid interface 256
13.4 Reflection and transmission at a spherical surface 258
14 Building the Response of a Model 260
14.1 Reflection and transmission for a region 260
14.1.1 A uniform region 261
viii Contents - Volume 1

14.1.2 A uniform layer 262

14.2 Reflection and transmission for a composite region 264
14.2.1 Reflection from a stack of uniform layers 268
14.2.2 The effects of velocity gradients 270
14.3 Reflection from a zone including the free surface 278
14.4 Source representation 278
14.5 Inclusion of source radiation 279
14.5.1 The full wavefield 280
14.5.2 Components of the seismic wavefield 282
14.6 Approximations to the response 286
14.6.1 Choice of propagation processes 287
14.6.2 Choice of wavetype 289
14.7 Generalized rays 290
14.7.1 Generalized Ray Expansion 291
14.7.2 Enumerating generalized rays 292
15 Constructing the Wavefield 294
15.1 Representation of the wavefield 294
15.2 Wavefield representation for cylindrical coordinates 298
15.3 Evaluation of the wavefield response 303
15.3.1 Spectral methods 304
15.3.2 Slowness methods 307
15.4 Spherical stratification 310
16 Body Waves and Surface Waves 313
16.1 Body waves 313
16.1.1 Reflectivity and associated approximations 313
16.1.2 Teleseismic arrivals 316
16.1.3 Approximations for specific seismic phases 322
16.1.4 Generalized rays 322
16.2 Ray-mode duality 328
16.3 Surface waves 333
16.3.1 Love waves 334
16.3.2 Rayleigh waves 337
16.3.3 Dispersion curves and modal shapes 341
16.4 Seismograms by modal summation 347
16.5 Radiation patterns for surface waves 350
Appendix: Table of Notation 352
Bibliography 357
Index 366
Preface

The inspiration for this book came from the remarkable series of articles written by
Beno Gutenberg in the 1930’s for the multi-volume Handbuch der Geophysik on the
theory and observations of waves from earthquakes that captured most of what was
known at the time.
With the subsequent growth of studies in Seismology, it would be rash for any
individual to attempt to cover the full field. Nevertheless, this book has arisen
from the need to provide a broad survey of the nature of seismic wave observations
and the relation of the seismic wavefield to the structure of the Earth. In the last
decade the volume of high quality digital observations has grown enormously with
the development of high quality global networks as well as the widespread use of
broad-band recording using portable instrumentation. Yet, at the same time, the
switch from analogue to digital presentation means that more effort is required to
obtain an overview of the seismic wavefield.
The focus of this book is on observations of earthquakes and man-made sources,
from the near-source region out to thousands of kilometres from the source, for both
body waves and surface waves. The emphasis is on frequencies above 10 mHz so that
the development can be regarded as complementary to the free oscillation orientation
of Theoretical Global Seismology by Dahlen and Tromp (1998).
The aim is to relate observations to the relevant physical processes. The link to
theory is made at a number of levels, starting with a broad survey and then progressing
towards more detail. The first part provides a survey of the structure of the Earth and
the nature of seismic wave propagation with illustrative examples of observations.
Many topics are introduced here and then elaborated in the second part which provides
a full development of the theoretical background. This material is then drawn upon in
Volume II, which is concerned with seismic observations at different distance ranges
from the source and the way in which the seismic wavefield across the globe evolves
with distance.
The emphasis throughout is on waves in seismological applications, and the
selection of methods and techniques is designed to provide physical insight rather
than concentrate on numerical efficiency. The book incorporates material developed

ix
x Preface

for graduate level courses at the Australian National University and short courses given
at Kyoto University and the University of Tokyo. I am grateful for the feedback that I
have received from many people and particularly my research students, K. Yoshizawa
and K. Marson-Pidgeon, who have helped to remove some of the blemishes from the
work.
Once again, I would like to thank my wife, Heather, for many forms of support
without which this volume would never have been finished.

B.L.N. Kennett
The Seismic Wavefield
Volume II: Interpretation of Seismograms on
Regional and Global Scales

B.L.N. KENNETT
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http://www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press 2002

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press

First published 2002

Printed in the United States of America

Typefaces Lucida Bright + Lucida NewMath (Y&Y) System LA TE X2
[author]

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data available

ISBN 0 521 80946 0 hardback

ISBN 0 521 00665 1 paperback
Contents - Volume II

Preface to Volume II page xi

Part III: Local and Regional Events 1
17 Near Events 3
17.1 Nature of the local wavefield 3
17.2 Interaction of source and structure 5
17.3 Strong-motion observations 8
17.3.1 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan 8
17.3.2 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan 11
17.4 Aftershock studies 16
17.4.1 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, Northern California 16
17.4.2 1994 Northridge earthquake, Southern California 18
17.4.3 Tennant Creek, Australia 23
18 Propagation Effects at Near Distances 28
18.1 Effect of surface structure 28
18.2 Effect of sedimentary basins 30
18.3 From strong ground motion to regional phases 34
18.4 Controlled source experiments 37
18.4.1 Continental profiles 37
18.4.2 Marine profiles 40
19 Regional Phases I - Propagation in the Crust and Uppermost Mantle 42
19.1 The character of regional phases 44
19.1.1 Crustal arrivals: Pg, Sg, Lg, Rg 45
19.1.2 Mantle arrivals: Pn, Sn 48
19.2 Description of regional phases 48
19.2.1 Near-source and near-receiver effects 51
19.2.2 Crustal phases: Pg, Sg, Lg 52
19.2.3 Mantle phases: Pn, Sn 54
19.3 Modelling of the regional wavefield 56
19.3.1 Evolution of the P-SV and SH wavefields 57
19.3.2 Influence of source depth and mechanism 59

v
vi Contents - Volume II

19.4 Three component records of regional phases 63

19.4.1 The vector character of the regional seismic wavefield 70
19.4.2 Amplitude ratios as a function of distance 72
19.5 Regional propagation at lower frequencies 74
20 Regional Phases II - The Influence of Structure 78
20.1 The crust and uppermost mantle as a waveguide 79
20.2 The influence of structure 85
20.2.1 Comparison of oceanic and continental environments 85
20.2.2 The effect of subduction zones 90
20.2.3 The nature of the crust-mantle transition 92
20.3 Blockage of regional phases 94
20.3.1 Central Asia 95
20.3.2 North Sea, NW Europe 98
20.3.3 The Japanese islands 104
21 Propagation in the Upper Mantle 108
21.1 Far-regional seismograms 109
21.2 Representations of upper mantle wavefields 112
21.2.1 Ray representations of body waves 112
21.2.2 Synthetic seismograms for body waves 114
21.2.3 Numerical simulation of the wavefield 116
21.3 Multiply reflected phases 117
21.3.1 Fundamental and higher mode surface waves 120
21.3.2 Influence of heterogeneity 123
22 Upper Mantle Structure 126
22.1 The uppermost mantle 126
22.2 Short-period observations 130
22.2.1 Soviet ultra-long-range profiles 132
22.2.2 Western America 136
22.2.3 Northern Australia 140
22.2.4 Northwest Pacific 142
22.3 Evidence for tectonic differences using long-period observations 145
22.4 Broad-band studies 147
22.4.1 Modelling individual seismograms 147
22.4.2 P and S wave structure in the Australian region 149
22.5 Nature of structures in the upper part of the mantle 156
22.5.1 Lithospheric mantle 156
22.5.2 Upper mantle and transition zone 157
23 Analysis of Regional and Far-Regional Seismograms 163
23.1 Regional array analysis and event location 164
23.2 Attribute analysis for regional seismograms 170
23.2.1 Particle motion 171
Contents - Volume II vii

23.2.2 Wavefield parameters 172

23.2.3 Wavefield decomposition 177
23.3 Shear-wave splitting for upper mantle phases 182
23.4 Inferences on the nature of sources 185
Part IV: Global Wave Propagation 187
24 The Nature of the Global Wavefield 189
24.1 The seismic wavefield for a shallow source 190
24.1.1 Ray behaviour for major seismic phases 190
24.1.2 Wavefield evolution 191
24.1.3 Synthetic seismograms 209
24.2 The wavefield from a deep source 209
24.3 Record sections from 2001 January 9, Vanuatu event 212
24.4 Surface waves and free oscillations of the Earth 217
24.4.1 Properties of the normal modes 217
24.4.2 Observations of modal eigenfrequencies 222
25 Body Waves in the Mantle 223
25.1 Mantle phases 223
25.1.1 Record sections for mantle phases 225
25.1.2 The patterns of mantle arrivals 227
25.1.3 Studying specific seismic phases 230
25.2 P, S and core reflections 235
25.2.1 Teleseismic body waves 235
25.2.2 Core reflections 240
25.2.3 Secondary phases 243
25.3 Mantle reverberation studies 245
25.4 Exploring D" 248
25.4.1 Long wavelength structure and CMB topography 249
25.4.2 D" discontinuity 252
25.4.3 Ultra-low velocity zones 254
25.4.4 Shear wave anisotropy in D" 255
26 Body Waves and the Earth’s Core 258
26.1 Representation of core propagation processes 258
26.2 The character of major core phases 260
26.2.1 PKP 260
26.2.2 SKS 264
26.2.3 SKP, PKS 267
26.3 Internal reflections in the core 269
26.3.1 PKP multiples 269
26.3.2 SKS multiples 271
26.4 The nature of the inner core 274
26.5 Scattering of core phases 277
viii Contents - Volume II

27 Surface Waves and Modal Analysis 280

27.1 The nature of surface waves 280
27.2 Globe circling surface waves 285
27.3 Analysis of surface wave records 290
27.3.1 Estimation of surface wave dispersion 293
27.3.2 Exploiting higher modes 305
27.4 The influence of propagation path 307
27.4.1 Mapping fundamental mode dispersion 310
27.4.2 Higher mode dispersion 314
27.4.3 Influence of anisotropy 315
28 Receiver Based Studies 319
28.1 The teleseismic wavefield at the surface 319
28.2 Receiver functions 322
28.2.1 Examination of receiver terms 324
28.2.2 Inversion for crustal structure 333
28.2.3 Receiver functions and upper mantle structure 336
28.2.4 Multi-station analysis of teleseismic coda 339
28.3 Shear-wave splitting 341
28.3.1 Splitting results for stratified media 343
28.3.2 SKS splitting 347
28.3.3 Other classes of shear wave splitting 351
28.4 Anisotropy from long-period P polarisation 351
29 Analysis of Seismic Records 353
29.1 Seismic source estimation 353
29.1.1 Source location 354
29.1.2 The nature of the seismic source 364
29.1.3 Example of source characterisation 368
29.2 Detection and characterisation of teleseisms 373
29.2.1 Phase detection and characterisation 374
29.2.2 Exploitation of phase information 382
29.3 Stacking of seismograms 388
29.3.1 Beamforming 389
29.3.2 Stacking at a regional network 391
29.3.3 Studies of mantle discontinuities 395
29.3.4 Scattered arrivals 397
Part V: The Three-dimensional Earth 399
30 The Influence of Heterogeneity 401
30.1 Representation of the wavefield 403
30.2 Perturbation methods 406
30.3 Direct calculation schemes 409
30.3.1 Discretisation of differential operators 409
Contents - Volume II ix

30.3.2 Discretisation of the medium 411

30.3.3 Direct solution method 414
30.4 Examples of propagation in heterogeneous models 417
30.4.1 Propagation in a heterogeneous spherical model 417
30.4.2 3-D simulation of the regional seismic wavefield 421
31 Imaging the Earth 426
31.1 Elements of seismic tomography 426
31.2 Data sources and analysis 429
31.3 Tomographic inversion 430
31.3.1 Treatment of data and models 430
31.3.2 Parameter optimisation 433
31.3.3 Implementation of tomographic inversion 434
31.3.4 Partitioned inversion 435
31.3.5 Resolution and model assessment 437
32 3-D Global Structure 439
32.1 Global modal tomography 440
32.1.1 Sources of information 441
32.1.2 Path approximations 443
32.1.3 Surface wave dispersion 445
32.2 Global body wave tomography 447
32.2.1 Styles of model representation 448
32.2.2 Cellular tomography 449
32.3 Global tomography with multiple data-sets 457
33 Mapping the Lithosphere and Upper Mantle 461
33.1 Regional surface-wave tomography 461
33.1.1 Waveform inversion 463
33.1.2 Integrating dispersion and waveform information 470
33.1.3 Extensions of waveform inversion methods 474
33.2 Regional body-wave tomography 476
33.2.1 An example of regional body-wave tomography for P waves 479
33.2.2 Joint inversion of P and S travel times on a regional scale 484
Appendix: Paths and Travel times 488
A.1 Geometry for source-receiver paths 488
A.2 Travel times for major seismic phases 490
A.2.1 Phase displays 490
A.2.2 Travel-time Tables 491
Regional Phases 496
Phases for surface focus to 120◦ 497
Phases from 110◦ to 180◦ 500
Bibliography 502
Index 530
Preface to Volume II

As noted in volume I, the inspiration for this book came from the remarkable set of
articles by Beno Gutenberg in the Handbuch der Geophysik, particularly vol. 4, 1932.
Gutenburg provided a comprehensive summary of the current theory and accompanied
this with a discussion of the nature of seismic observations.
This second volume of The Seismic Wavefield is primarily devoted to the
interpretation of observed seismograms in terms of the physical processes which
control their properties, with a strong link to the theoretical development in the
first volume. References to sections in the first volume are indicated using a section
marker (e.g., § I:3.1.2) and for equations from the earlier volume the volume number
is represented explicitly as in (I:14.2.1). The emphasis throughout the book is on body
waves and surface waves with frequencies above 10 mHz, rather than phenomena
which are best treated through a normal mode development for the whole Earth, which
are well covered in Theoretical Global Seismology by Dahlen & Tromp (1998).
The treatment starts with a discussion of near-source effects and strong ground
motion. Then attention is directed to the wavefield as seen at progressively larger
distances. For regional ranges, out to 1000 km from the source, the properties of
the crust and uppermost mantle play an important role. In the far-regional range, for
epicentral distances from 1000 km to 3000 km, the complex interactions with upper
mantle discontinuities dictate the character of P and S arrivals. For larger epicentral
distances a global perspective is appropriate, but surface multiples still carry relatively
shallowly propagating waves to substantial distances.
The introduction to the discussion of seismic wave propagation across the globe
was strongly influenced by the 2 m long wall chart From Earthquake to Seismogram
prepared in 1962 under the direction of the late Professor S. Warren Carey at the
University of Tasmania. In this chart the wavefronts of body waves and surface waves
are carefully mapped through the Earth and across its surface, and these wavefronts
are related to the features of a seismogram from an earthquake in the Kuriles recorded
at the Hobart Observatory in Tasmania.
The last part of this volume treats issues of three-dimensional seismic structure
through a combination of numerical seismology and tomographic studies. The

xi
 xii Preface to Volume II

treatment builds on the discussion of the different parts of the wavefield in the earlier
sections.
A substantial part of the book was written whilst I was on Outside Studies Leave
from the Australian National University in the northern spring of 2001. I would like to
thank the Ecolé et Observatoire des Sciences de la Terre of the Université Louis Pasteur
in Strasbourg, France, and NORSAR in Oslo, Norway, for support and facilities during
my stay. A visit in the northern autumn of 2000 to the Earthquake Research Institute,
University of Tokyo, provided direct experience of the impact of the Tottori-ken Seibu
earthquake of October 6 and has had a strong influence on the presentation of strong
ground motion.
This volume incorporates material, particularly on seismic tomography, that was
originally developed for graduate-level courses at the Australian National University
and short courses given at Kyoto University and the University of Tokyo. I have
had useful feedback on these sections, which has helped to shape the final form of
presentation.
Many people have helped me with the provision of data or figures, so that it has
been possible to provide seismogram examples from around the world. The IRIS
Data Management Centre in Seattle, Washington, has been the source of many of
the illustrated seismograms, and data have also been sourced from the Geoscope
and Geofon networks. I would like to particularly thank Mike Bostock, Ken Creager,
Don Helmberger, Kazuki Koketsu, Barbara Romanowicz, and Jeroen Tromp for their
contributions. A considerable number of the figures of Japanese events and the
numerical simulations of the character of the wavefield have been developed in close
collaboration with Takashi Furumura, and I am very grateful for all his help.
I would like to thank Kazunori Yoshizawa, Katrina Marson-Pidgeon, Stewart
Fishwick, Tae-Kyung Hong, and Cuiping Zhao for their efforts in figure presentation
and data organisation, as well as helpful comments on the manuscript as it has evolved.
I would, once again, like to record my thanks to my wife, Heather, who has helped
to sustain the process of writing and manuscript preparation in innumerable ways.

B.L.N. Kennett

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