4.

4 Genetic diversity and adaptation

What is genetic diversity?

Number of different alleles ● Alleles (variations of a gene) arise by mutation

of a gene in a population ● Population = group of interbreeding individuals of the same species

Genetic diversity is a factor enabling natural selection to occur

● In certain environments, a new allele of a gene might benefit its possessor

● By resulting in a change in the polypeptide (protein) coded for that positively changes its properties
● Giving the possessor a selective advantage (increased chances of survival and reproductive success)

The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations

● Evolution = change in allele frequency (how common an allele is) over many generations in a population
● Evolution occurs through the process of natural selection

1. Mutation Random gene mutations can result in [named] new alleles of a gene

2. Advantage In certain [named] environments, the new allele might benefit its possessor
[explain why] → organism has a selective advantage

3. Reproductive success Possessors are more likely to survive and have increased reproductive success

4. Inheritance Advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation (offspring)

5. Allele frequency Over many generations, [named] allele increases in frequency in the population

⭐ Memory tip ⭐ Use the acronym ‘MARIA’ to remember the stages of natural selection
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment

Adaptation = characteristic that increase an organism’s chance of survival (and so reproduction)

Definition Example

Anatomical Structural / physical features of an organism Thick layer of blubber

that increase its chance of survival → keep warm in cold climates

Physiological Processes / chemical reactions inside an Lowering rate of metabolism during

organism that increase its chance of survival hibernation → conserve energy

Behavioural Ways in which an organism acts that Playing dead

increase its chance of survival → avoid attack by a predator
Types of selection - directional vs. stabilising

1. Directional selection - exemplified by antibiotic resistance in bacteria

2. Stabilising selection - exemplified by human birth weight

Directional selection Stabilising selection

Key feature - who has a Organisms with an extreme variation of Organisms with an average / modal
selective advantage? a trait eg. bacteria with high resistance variation of a trait eg. babies with an
to an antibiotic average weight

Change in Yes, usually eg. antibiotic introduced No, usually stable

environment?

Effect on the population ● Increased frequency of organisms ● Increased frequency of organisms

over many generations with the extreme trait (and alleles) with the average trait (and alleles)
● Normal distribution curve shifts ● Normal distribution curve similar,
towards extreme trait less variation around the mean

Application - selective breeding (artificial selection)

● Although this topic is in the GCSE specification and does not feature directly at A Level, exam questions
often involve application of selection in the context of selective breeding, or artificial selection
● During selective breeding, humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics
● This often acts through directional selection
○ Alleles resulting in particular ‘extreme’ characteristics are favoured (have a selective advantage)

‘Students should be able to’

● Use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a population of a species
● Interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations
● Show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and contribute to the
diversity of living organisms.
Required practical 6

Aim

Use of aseptic techniques to investigate the effect of antimicrobial substances on microbial growth.

● Antimicrobial substances kill / inhibit growth of microorganisms eg. disinfectant, antiseptic, antibiotics
● Can investigate different substances OR concentrations of substances

Method

1. Prepare area using aseptic techniques (see below)

2. Use a sterile pipette to transfer bacteria from broth (nutrients, water, bacterial culture) to an agar plate
(petri dish containing agar jelly), using aseptic techniques (see below)
3. Use a sterile spreader to evenly spread bacteria over agar plate
4. Use sterile forceps to place discs (same size / material) that have been soaked in different
antimicrobials (for the same length of time) onto the agar plate (at equal distances)
5. Lightly tape lid onto plate (not fully sealed), invert and incubate at 25oC for 48 hours
6. Use a ruler to measure diameter of inhibition zone (clear circle) around each disc and calculate its area
using the formula πr2
Aseptic techniques

Aseptic techniques → prevent contamination by microorganisms from the environment

Stage Aseptic technique Explanation

Preparation Wash hands with soap Kill microbes to prevent contamination

(and after)
Wipe surfaces with disinfectant

Sterilise equipment - eg. autoclave (high temp /

pressure) and agar growth medium (boil)

During Work closely to a Bunsen burner Convection currents draws air-borne

inoculation microbes away to prevent contamination

Minimise opening of lid of Petri dish Prevent unwanted microbes entering /

contamination
Flame neck of containers of bacteria (before and
after use)

Presentation of data

● Categorical data eg. different antibiotics → bar chart

○ X axis (independent variable) - type of antibiotic
○ Y axis (dependent variable) - area of zone of inhibition / mm3
● Continuous data eg. concentration of antibiotic → line graph joined by a line of best fit
○ X axis - concentration of antibiotic / μgmL-1
○ Y axis - area of zone of inhibition / mm3

Explanation of results

1. Clear zones
● [Named] antimicrobial diffuses out of disc into agar
● Bacteria killed / growth inhibited
● Larger clear zones → more bacteria killed → more effective antimicrobial
2. No clear zones (if antimicrobial used is an antibiotic)
● Bacteria may be resistant to that specific antibiotic
● Antibiotic may not be effective against that specific bacteria (different antibiotics target different
bacteria species)
Common questions

Why boil agar before pouring? ● To destroy / kill any bacteria → prevent contamination

Why hold the lid with 2 pieces of tape ● Allows oxygen in

instead of sealing completely? ● Preventing growth of anaerobic bacteria
● Which are more likely to be pathogenic / harmful to humans

Why incubate upside down? ● Condensation drips onto lid rather than surface of agar

Why incubate no more than 25oC? ● Well below human body temperature
● Less risk of growing microbes pathogenic / harmful to humans

How to overcome each zone of ● Repeat readings in different positions around the clear zone
inhibition not being uniform? ● Then calculate a mean

Why use a paper disc with water / no ● Act as a control

antimicrobial agent? ● Ensuring it was only the [named] antimicrobial that preventing
growth, not the paper disc

Why not use higher concentrations ● More bacteria killed so clear zones may overlap
of antimicrobials?

Why is it important to maintain a ● Unwanted bacteria may outcompete bacteria being

pure culture of bacteria? investigated
● Or could be harmful to humans / pathogenic

​Making serial dilutions of bacteria

Example: how to make a 1 in 10 dilution of bacteria then using this to make a 1 in 1000 dilution of the original
liquid culture of bacteria

1. How to make 1 in 10 dilution: add 1 part bacteria culture to 9 parts sterile liquid (water/nutrient/broth)
2. Mix (the diluted suspension)
3. How to make a 1 in 100 dilution: Repeat using 0 parts fresh sterile liquid and 1 part 1 in 10 dilution
4. How to make a 1 in 1000 dilution: repeat using 9 parts fresh sterile liquid and 1 part 1 in 100 dilution