EXPERIMENT # 09

Medical physics lab

DOPPLER EFFECT & MEDICAL IMAGING

DOPPLER EFFECT
INTRODUCTION:
Doppler Effect or Doppler shift is a phenomenon that is observed whenever the
source of waves is moving with respect to an observer. For example, an ambulance
crossing you with its siren blaring is a common physical demonstration of the
Doppler Effect. In this article, let us understand the intricacies of the Doppler
Effect in detail. Doppler Effect is an important phenomenon in various scientific
disciplines, including planetary science. The Doppler Effect or the Doppler shift
describes the changes in the frequency of any sound or light wave produced by a
moving source with respect to an observer.
Doppler Effect:
Doppler Effect in physics is defined as the increase (or decrease) in the frequency
of sound, light, or other waves as the source and observer move towards (or away
from) each other.
Waves emitted by a source travelling towards an observer get compressed. In
contrast, waves emitted by a source travelling away from an observer get stretched
out. Christian Johann Doppler first proposed the Doppler Effect (Doppler Shift) in
1842.
Doppler Effect Examples
Let us imagine the following scenario:
Case 1: Two people A and B, are standing on the road, as shown below in the
picture.
Which person hears the sound of the revving engine with a greater
magnitude?
Person A hears the sound of the revving engine with a greater magnitude than
person B. Person B, standing behind the car, receives fewer waves per second
(because they’re spread out), resulting in a low-pitched sound. But, person A who
is in front of the car, receives more of those soundwave ripples per second. As a
result, the frequency of the waves is higher, which means the sound has a higher
pitch.
Case 2: Now let us consider the following situations:
Situation 1: How is the pattern of waves formed when you suddenly jump into a
pond?
Situation 2: How is the pattern of waves formed when you are walking in a pond?
The image given below highlights the difference between wave patterns in both
situations.
The difference in the wave pattern is due to the source’s movement in the second
case. This is what the Doppler Effect is. In the Doppler Effect, the frequency
received by the observer is higher during the approach, identical when the relative
positions are the same, and keeps lowering on the recession of the source.
Doppler Effect Formula:
Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the frequency of waves due to the relative
motion between the source of the sound and the observer. We can deduce the
apparent frequency in the Doppler Effect using the following equation:

While there is only one Doppler Effect equation, the above equation changes in
different situations depending on the velocities of the observer or the source of the
sound. Let us see below how we can use the equation of the Doppler Effect in
different situations.
(a) Source Moving Towards the Observer at Rest
In this case, the observer’s velocity is zero, so V0 is equal to zero. Substituting this
into the Doppler Effect equation above, we get the equation of the Doppler Effect
when a source is moving towards an observer at rest as:

(b) Source Moving Away from the Observer at Rest

Since the velocity of the observer is zero, we can eliminate V0 from the equation.
But this time, the source moves away from the observer, so its velocity is negative
to indicate the direction. Hence, the equation now becomes as follows:

(c) Observer Moving Towards a Stationary Source

In this case, vs will equal to zero, hence we get the following equation:
(d)Observer Moving Away from a Stationary Source
Since the observer is moving away, the velocity of the observer becomes negative.
So, instead of adding V0, we now subtract, since V0 is negative.

Uses of Doppler Effect:

Many people mistake the Doppler Effect to be applicable only for sound waves. It
works with all types of waves including light. Below, we have listed a few
applications of the doppler Effect:
 Sirens
 Radar
 Astronomy
 Medical Imaging
 Blood Flow Measurement
 Satellite Communication
 Vibration Measurement
 Developmental Biology
 Audio
 Velocity Profile Measurement
Doppler Effect Limitations:
 Doppler Effect is applicable only when the velocities of the source of the
sound and the observer are much less than the velocity of sound.
  The motion of both source and the observer should be along the same
straight line.
Doppler Effect in Light
Doppler Effect of light can be described as the apparent change in the frequency of
the light observed by the observer due to relative motion between the source of
light and the observer.
For sound waves, however, the equations for the Doppler shift differ markedly
depending on whether it is the source, the observer, or the air, which is moving.
Light requires no medium, and the Doppler shift for light travelling in a vacuum
depends only on the relative speed of the observer and source.
Red Shift and Blue Shift

 When the light source moves away from the observer, the frequency
received by the observer will be less than the frequency transmitted by the
source. This causes a shift towards the red end of the visible light spectrum.
Astronomers call it the redshift.
 When the light source moves towards the observer, the frequency received
by the observer will be greater than the frequency transmitted by the source.
This causes a shift towards the high-frequency end of the visible
light spectrum. Astronomers call it the blue shift.
The Doppler Effect is evidence that the universe is expanding. Edwin Hubble used
the Doppler Effect to prove that the universe is expanding. Hubble noticed that the
light from distant galaxies was shifted toward lower frequencies to the red end of
the spectrum. When stars or galaxies are moving away from us, we see their colour
as red-shifted.
 MEDICAL IMAGING

What is medical imaging?

Medical scanners are used to produce pictures of the human body. These images
are utilized by healthcare professionals to evaluate and assist in the diagnosis of a
disease state. This allows for the development of a personalized treatment plan for
the patient. In addition, medical imaging is also used to monitor patients for any
future medical difficulties that may develop over time. This is in conjunction with
regular health screening programs.
Since the discovery of X-rays, radiologists can image the human body in
sophisticated detail with a wide array of medical imaging scanners. These
modalities include computed tomography (CT scanner), magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI scanner), and positron emission tomography (PET
scanner), ultrasound scanner amongst other techniques.
Various screening programs are used by healthcare organizations; for example, for
the detection of breast cancer by the use of advanced positron emission
mammography (PEM). Subsequently, the technique called dual-energy X-ray
absorptiometry (DEXA) is used to investigate osteoporosis and monitor the
mineral density of bone. The most popular and widely used imaging modality is
ultrasound, which can be used to examine the liver and kidneys, in addition to
muscles and joints.
Currently, medical imaging plays a vital role in the evaluation of various heart
conditions through cardiac imaging. This article aims to give patients a brief
outline of the different medical imaging modalities which are used in hospitals and
healthcare organizations.

X-ray:-
In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röentgen was working in his laboratory at Würzburg
University in Germany, when he observed crystals near a high-voltage cathode-ray
tube beginning to glow. He concluded that a form of energy was being generated
by the cathode-ray tube -which was able to penetrate the nearby paper – causing
the crystals to glow. Röentgen named the unknown energy ‘X-radiation’.
X-rays are now a general medical diagnostic procedure used to obtain images from
inside the human body. The X-ray procedure only takes a few minutes – with the
significant advantage of this imaging technique being that the X-ray machine does
not enclose the human body – and therefore is able to limit anxiety in people
suffering from claustrophobia.
Diagnostic X-ray imaging of the human skeleton is commonly used to ascertain
whether any bones are damaged or broken. Also, in dentistry, X-rays are useful for
determining whether treatment is required as well as evaluating the health of the
teeth. In general, X-rays have been used to guide surgeons through operational
procedures; for example, in the detection of bone tumours.
CT Scan:-
In some cases, the patient requires a computed tomography scan known as a CT
scan. The CT scanner is able to create an internal image of the human body by
using a combination of X-rays and computers. Ultimately, the CT scanner is an
advanced X-ray machine that can produce 3-D images of soft tissue inside the
body. This is in contrast to planer X-ray machines which only generate 2-D
images and can be used to detect pneumonia and certain cancers.
Furthermore, the CT scanner is capable of imaging several parts of the human
body which include the skeleton, internal organs and blood vessels. Moreover, CT
scanning is mostly used for the brain, neck, spine and chest. Another important
use of the CT scanner is to locate tumours and broken bones within the patient.
However, an X-ray scan is sometimes not conclusive and therefore the CT
scanner is used to aid further diagnosis. The CT scanning process involves the
patient resting on a movable horizontal bed, which travels through the entrance of
the scanner, with the gantry containing the X-ray units rotating around cross-
sections of the body. At this stage, the patient is advised to remain still in order to
obtain clear CT images.
During the scanning procedure, the radiologist will be in an adjoining room to
operate the scanner and be shielded from the radiation. The CT scan can take up to
20 minutes – depending on the condition of the patient – and the scans are
subsequently analysed by a computer. Also, CT scanning is a non-invasive, pain-
free technique.

MRI Scan:-
Magnetic resonance imaging, known as an MRI scan is a technique to produce
cross-sectional images of the human body. Both CT and MRI produce high-
quality images which enable healthcare professionals to evaluate the disease state
in the patient.
MRI is used to scan the brain and spinal cord; for example, in multiple sclerosis
(MS) patients and other neurological conditions. The MRI scanner is also used for
the skeleton, the heart and blood vessels and internal organs. The MRI scanner
surrounds the whole body, which is in contrast to the CT scanner. The process
involves the patient lying on a movable bed which slowly transports into a
‘cylinder,’ with a patient-friendly entry diameter of at least 60 cm.
The patient will then be subjected to a strong magnetic field and a sequence of
radio waves to create the images. While the patient is in the MRI scanner, the
radiographer will be in an adjacent viewing room and in contact with the
patient. The MRI scan can take up to 90 minutes and is a much noisier machine
than the CT scanner. Hence, the patient will be given ear protection.
There are several advantages of having an MRI scan – as opposed to a CT scan –
primarily because X-ray radiation is not involved. Therefore, it remains a safe
procedure that is suitable for use on pregnant women. Since MRI uses strong
magnetic fields, it is essential for the patient to notify healthcare professionals
about shunts, pacemakers and any metal objects within the body.
In some cases, patients will be offered an open MRI scanning procedure instead of
a closed system. These open scanners will still provide high-quality imaging but
are not suitable for cardiac and breast imaging. The main benefit of the open MRI
scanner is for patients who experience anxiety or claustrophobia. The patient in
the open MRI scanner will be more comfortable and relaxed and able to remain
still allowing the radiographer to obtain high-quality scans.

PET Scan:-
Positron emission tomography, known as a PET scan, is used to create 3-D images
of the human body. They are mostly located in the Nuclear Medicine Departments
of hospitals and healthcare providers. The PET scanner can be combined with CT
to produce images about the internal workings of the body.
A whole-body PET scan is used on cancer patients to detect the progression of the
disease and to evaluate the patient response to chemotherapy and radiotherapy
treatment. These PET scans are also used in the planning of certain types of
surgery; for example, brain or heart operations. Furthermore, PET imaging can be
used to help in the diagnosis of dementia by evaluating brain function.
When a patient is offered a PET scan, they will be injected with a radiotracer. The
majority of patients will receive a radiotracer called FDG (18F-
fluorodeoxyglucose), which is injected into the arm, emitting radiation over a
specific time frame.
The radiation emitted is detected by the PET scanner: this creates the images and
will also indicate the level of radiation accumulating inside the body. Accordingly,
if no FDG levels are indicated that would specify normal body function within that
particular region of the body.FDG is similar to glucose and the cancer cells will
take this radiotracer up at a faster rate than normal cells.
Therefore, by analysing the PET scans for FDG accumulation, the type of cancer
can be identified and tracked throughout the human body. A typical PET scan can
take up to 30 minutes to complete. Furthermore, the PET scanner can be used to
investigate metabolic changes at the cellular level in various organs or
tissues. This would be more of a challenge with CT or MRI scanners.

Ultrasound Scan:-

An ultrasound scanner produces images by passing high-frequency waves into the

human body. Ultrasound is widely used to obtain images of unborn children, in
real-time. They are also used by surgeons – for specific procedures – to help them
in the diagnosis of the patient. Ultrasound systems work by using a probe, which
is capable of emitting high-frequency sound waves. The sound waves reflect off
various organs and surrounding tissues to create echoes, which bounce back to the
probe to form 2-D or 3-D images, in real-time. The scanning process can last up to
45 minutes and is performed both externally and internally.
Accordingly, endoscopic ultrasound (EUS), is an invasive procedure to investigate
gastrointestinal and lung diseases. The EUS imaging technique can be used to find
the causes of abdominal or chest pain. EUS can be used in conjunction with other
diagnostic tests such as CT and MRI scans to evaluate cancers of the colon,
oesophagus, lung, pancreas, stomach and rectum. The main advantage of
ultrasound is that there are no patient after-effects and normal activities can be
resumed. Also, the results of the ultrasound scan can be evaluated in real-time and
there is no need for the patient to wait.
Mobile Scanners:
It is important to address the rising demand for medical imaging and provide the
advanced technologies that patients require. Accordingly, there is an increase in
demand from the private sector and the NHS for mobile scanning. These portable
scanners aim to improve diagnosis and deliver quality patient care. Essentially,
these units help to reduce hospital waiting lists and reduce patient waiting
times. Unfortunately, some hospitals do not provide a broad range of medical
imaging services. Nevertheless, there is a need for everybody in society to access
high-quality diagnostic services in order to improve patient treatment care
plans. The mobile imaging services can help meet the hospitals’ specific short and
long-term requirements. These facilities can incorporate CT, MRI, Cardiac Cath
Labs, X-ray, DEXA scanning and PET-CT imaging amongst others.