Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EXAMPLES:
1. Linear Functions
f (x) = mx + b
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Its graph is a straight line:
2. Polynomials:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are constants called the coefficients of P (x) and n is the degree of
P (x) (if an 6= 0).
(a) If an > 0 and n is even, then its graph is
3 3
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = x4 + x3 − 2 x2 − x + 1 with a4 = 1 > 0 and even
2 2
degree= 4.
1
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
9 1 1
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = −x4 − x3 + x2 + x − with a4 = −1 < 0 and even
4 4 2
degree= 4.
(c) If an > 0 and n is odd, then its graph is
9 5 15 2 7
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = x5 + x4 + x3 − x − x + 3 with a5 = 1 > 0 and
2 2 2 2
odd degree= 5.
(d) If an < 0 and n is odd, then its graph is
9 5 15 2 7
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = −x5 − x4 − x3 + x + x − 3 with a5 = −1 < 0
2 2 2 2
and odd degree= 5.
2
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
3. Power functions:
f (x) = xa
where a is a constant. Here we distinguish three main cases:
(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer
(iii) a = −1
3
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
4. Rational functions:
P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)
where P (x), Q(x) are polynomials.
1 x+1 3x2 − 5x + 1
EXAMPLES: f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) = , etc.
x x−3 x3 + 1
5. Trigonometric functions:
In this course it is important to know graphs and basic properties of the following trigonometric
functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x
4
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
5
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
Transformations of Functions
Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting: Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph
of
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = (1/c)f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis
y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis
EXAMPLES:
1. Given the graph of f (x) = x2 , use transformations to graph f (x) = (x + 1)2 .
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1
x x
3 1
2 0
-2 -1 0 1 2
x
1 -1
0 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2
x
6
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
3 -1
2 -2
1 -3
0 -4
-2 -1 0 1 2
x
√ √
4. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = −x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = −x (reflection about the y-axis)
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
x
√ √
5. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 + x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = 1 + x (horizontal shift)
√ √
Step 3: f (x) = − 1 + x (reflection) Step 4: f (x) = 1 − 1 + x (vertical shift)
√ √
6. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 − x.
7
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
√ √
6. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 − x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = 1 + x (horizontal shift)
√ √
Step 3: f (x) = − 1 + x (reflection) Step 4: f (x) = 1 − 1 + x (vertical shift)
√
Step 5: f (x) = 1 − 1 − x (reflection about the y-axis)
8
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
Combinations of functions
√ √
EXAMPLE: The domain of f (x) = x√is A = [0, ∞), the domain of g(x) = 1 − x is
B = (−∞, 1], and the domain of h(x) = x − 1 is C = [1, ∞), so the domain of
√ √
(f − g)(x) = x − 1 − x is A ∩ B = [0, 1]
and √ √
(f − h)(x) = x− x − 1 is A ∩ C = [1, ∞)
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 1, then the domain of the rational function
(f /g)(x) = x2 /(x − 1) is {x | x 6= 1} or (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
There is another way of √combining two functions to obtain a new function. For example,
suppose that y = f (u) = u and u = g(x) = x2 + 1. Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn,
a function of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x. We compute this by substitution:
√
y = f (u) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = x2 + 1
The procedure is called composition because the new function is composed of the two given
functions f and g.
9
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
REMARK: You can see from the Examples above that sometimes f ◦ g = g ◦ f, but, in general,
f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .
The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
In other words, (f ◦ g)(x) is defined whenever both g(x) and f (g(x)) are defined.
√
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x, then
√ √
q
2 2 4
f ◦ f = (x ) = x f ◦ g = x, x ≥ 0 g ◦ f = |x| g◦g = x= 4
x
√
(of course, the domain of g ◦ g = 4 x is all nonnegative numbers).
√
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3
x, then
√ √
q
3 3 9 3
f ◦ f = (x ) = x f ◦g =x g◦f =x g◦g = 3
x= 9
x
√ √
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g
10
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
√ √
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g
Solution:
(a) We have
√ √ √
q
4
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x) = 2−x= 2−x
The domain of f ◦ g is {x | 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2} = (−∞, 2].
(b) We have
√ √
q
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = 2 − x
√ p √ √
For x to√ be defined we must have x ≥ 0. For 2 − x to be defined we must have 2− x ≥ 0,
that is, x ≤ 2, or x ≤ 4. Thus we have 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, so the domain of g ◦ f is the closed interval
[0, 4].
(c) We have
√ √ √
q
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f ( x) = x= 4x
The domain of f ◦ f is [0, ∞).
(d) We have
√ √
q
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( 2 − x) = 2 − 2 − x
√
This expression is defined when both 2√ −x ≥ 0 and 2 − 2 − x ≥ 0. The first inequality means
x ≤ 2, and the second is equivalent to 2 − x ≤ 2, or 2 −x ≤ 4, or x ≥ −2. Thus −2 ≤ x ≤ 2,
so the domain of g ◦ g is the closed interval [-2, 2].
It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the composite
function f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first applying h, then g, and then f as follows:
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x)))
So far we have used composition to build complicated functions from simpler ones. But in
calculus it is often useful to be able to decompose a complicated function into simpler ones, as
in the following example.
1
EXAMPLE: Given F (x) = , find functions f, g, and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.
(x + 9)2
11
Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
1
EXAMPLE: Given F (x) = , find functions f, g, and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.
(x + 9)2
Solution 1: The formula for F says: First add 9, then square x + 9, and finally divide 1 by the
result. So we let
1
f (x) = , g(x) = x2 , h(x) = x + 9
x
Then
1
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 9)) = f ((x + 9)2 ) = = F (x)
(x + 9)2
Solution 2: Here is an other way to look at F : First add 9, then divide 1 by x + 9, and finally
square the result. So we let
1
f (x) = x2 , g(x) = , h(x) = x + 9
x
Then
2
1 1 1
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 9)) = f = = = F (x)
x+9 x+9 (x + 9)2
12