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Lecture 2
Ultrasound
Ultrasound
Ultrasound
imaging
has
its
origins
in
the
1940s.
Sound
has
been
used
to
formulate
a
diagnosis
for
a
long
>me:
ausculta>on,
stethoscopy.
Pierre
and
Marie
Curie
discovered
the
piezoelectric
effect
in
1880.
This
is
the
principle
for
ultrasound
transducer
for
genera>on
and
detec>on
of
ultrasonic
energy.
First
applica>on
of
this
principle
was
implemented
by
Langevin
during
WWI
to
detect
submarines.
Not
successful
but
was
the
basis
for
sonar.
First
applica>ons
of
ultrasound
in
medicine
during
the
1920s
and
30s
were
all
of
them
therapeu>c.
In
the
late
40s
and
early
50s
diagnos>c
ultrasound
evolved
from
military
applica>ons.
1
4/3/14
Ultrasound
Early
pioneers
were
based
in
Japan,
Europe
and
the
US.
In
1949,
at
the
University
of
Minnesota,
Wild
used
a
navy
radar
trainer
(15
MHz)
to
measure
thickness
of
excised
>ssue.
He
correlated
echoes
in
the
oscilloscope
with
>ssue
structure
and
by
chance
discovered
changes
in
cancerous
>ssue.
These
were
the
origins
of
>ssue
characteriza>on.
Moved
his
lab
to
his
basement
and
Reid
helped
to
put
together
A
second
version
of
this
B-‐scanner
was
used
to
visualize
cancers
in
pa>ents
scheduled
for
surgery
Ultrasound
Wild
and
Reid’s
most
significant
insight
was
the
recogni>on
that
malignant
>ssue
may
be
dis>nguished
from
non-‐malignant
>ssue
by
means
of
echoes.
Malignant
>ssue
seemed
consistently
more
echoic
than
normal
>ssue.
Douglass
Howry,
from
the
University
of
Colorado,
worked
independently
from
Wild
and
Reid.
He
used
lower
frequencies
(2-‐5
MHz).
Low
frequencies
decreased
resolu>on
but
increased
penetra>on.
He
developed
immersion
scanners:
2
4/3/14
Ultrasound
To
obtain
a
scan
of
the
neck
the
pa>ent
had
to
be
immersed.
Lead
weights
were
placed
on
his
stomach
to
ensure
consistent
immersion
level!!!!
Ultrasound
Rudimentary
as
they
may
seem,
Dr.
Howry
was
able
to
produce
images
like
this
one
with
his
scanner:
It
took
10
min.
to
construct
the
image
onto
photographic
film.
3
4/3/14
Ultrasound
Medical
ultrasound
By
the
end
of
the
1950s
ultrasound
was
used
as
diagnos>cs
tool
in
neurology,
cardiology,
gynecology,
obstetrics,
ophthalmology
and
internal
medicine.
Echocardiography
(1953).
Edler
(Lund,
Sweden)
and
Hertz
launched
clinical
echocardiography
using
pulse-‐echo.
4
4/3/14
Echocardiography
They
developed
the
M-‐mode
technique
Meanwhile
in
Japan
Doppler
was
used
to
correctly
iden>fy
echoes.
Echocardiography
Dr.
Ray
Gramiak
(UofR,
1965)
developed
contrast
agents.
One
of
the
major
problems
in
echocardiography
was
to
iden>fy
correctly
echoes
from
different
cardiac
structures.
5
4/3/14
Echocardiography
Echoencephalography
How
to
image
through
the
skull?
Reflec>on
and
absorp>on
of
ultrasound
by
adult
skulls
difficult
imaging.
Research
was
done
primarily
on
infants
and
young
kids.
In
the
1950s
and
60s
major
efforts
were
undertaken.
Non-‐invasive
nature
on
ultrasound
made
it
very
appealing.
Makow’s
efforts
are
shown
below:
6
4/3/14
Obstetrics
Much
of
the
early
interest
in
diagnos>c
ultrasound
was
directed
towards
detec>on
of
tumors,
echocardiography
and
echoencephalography.
Most
successful
early
applica>on
was
on
obstetrics
and
gynecology.
Pioneering
work
was
developed
in
Glasgow
by
Ian
Donald.
Had
a
hard
>me
securing
funds
due
to
unknown
toxic
effects
of
ultrasound
on
fetuses.
1960.
Mechanical
arm
was
supposed
to
minimize
errors
of
manual
scanning.
Images
not
much
different
than
manually
operated
systems.
Doppler
Japan,
1950s.
Satomura
was
trying
to
measure
small
vibra>ons
of
solid
bodies
with
ultrasound.
1955.
Used
Doppler
ultrasound
to
study
mo>ons
of
human
heart.
1960.
Detected
and
iden>fied
mo>on
of
the
mitral,
aor>c
and
pulmonic
valves.
Besides
these
echoes
they
also
iden>fied
some
“noise”
…
they
realized
they
were
measuring
blood
flow.
7
4/3/14
Sonosite Siemens
hcp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UzAzaAWyE8
8
4/3/14
Doppler
Ultrasound
•
Color-‐Doppler
imaging
presents
2D,
cross-‐sec>onal,
real-‐>me
blood
flow
or
>ssue
mo>on
informa>on
along
with
2D,
cross-‐sec>onal,
gray-‐scale
anatomic
imaging.
2D,
real-‐>me
presenta>ons
of
flow
informa>on
allow
to
locate
regions
of
abnormal
flow.
• 3D echo data are acquired by obtaining many parallel 2D sec>ons.
hcp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5LP94EnTc4
Ultrasound
• Sound is a wave, i.e. traveling varia>ons of some quan>ty (pressure).
• Sound involves mechanical mo>on in the medium through which it travels.
•
Pressure
varia>ons
cause
par>cles
of
the
medium
to
vibrate
due
to
increase
and
decrease
of
density.
9
4/3/14
Sound
pressure
>me
period
Sound
•
Sound
travels
in
the
form
of
a
wave,
which
is
a
coordinated
disturbance
moving
at
a
fixed
speed
through
a
medium.
• Sound waves move fast and generally do not produce visible changes.
•
A
wave
carries
energy
through
the
medium.
Aner
the
wave
moves,
the
par>cles
return
to
their
normal
posi>ons.
•
Sound
waves
travel
through
>ssue
as
longitudinal
waves.
The
waves
travel
away
from
the
source
more
or
less
parallel
to
the
direc>on
of
the
par>cles
vibra>on.
Transverse
waves
do
not
travel
effec>vely
through
son
>ssue.
.
20
10
4/3/14
•
Frequency:
How
many
cycles
occur
in
one
second,
measured
in
Hertz.
(1
Hz
=
1/s).
Human
hearing:
20
Hz
to
20
000
Hz,
or
20
KHz.
Ultrasound:
beyond
20
KHz.
Frequency
is
important
in
ultrasound
because
of
its
impact
on
resolu>on
and
penetra>on
of
sonographic
images.
•
Period:
Time
that
takes
for
one
cycle
to
occur.
Inverse
of
frequency.
If
frequency
increases
period
decreases.
For
example,
the
period
for
5
MHz
ultrasound
is
1
/
5,
000,
000
=
0.0000002
=
0.2
ms.
21
c
λ=
f
22
11
4/3/14
23
Propaga>on speed
24
12
4/3/14
Transmit
Receive
Transducer
Transmit
Transmit
Receive
Transducer
diffrac>on
Scacering
diffrac>on
response
diffrac>on
acenua>on
acenua>on
response
T D A S A D T
p(t)*h(t)
Transducer Volume VT
rn
p(t)
zn
Beamwidth
Pulsewidth
sn(t)
received
signal,
p(t)
excita>on
pulse,
h(t)
impulse
response
of
transducer,
an(t)
scacering
coefficient,
b(rn,zn,t)
diffrac>on
term.
26
13
4/3/14
Analysis
sn (t ) = p(t ) ∗ h(t ) ∗ an (t ) ∗ b(rn , zn , t )
This
equa>on
assumes
that
the
process
is
linear.
Apply
Fourier
transform
and
filter
theorem:
∞
S ( f ) = s(t )e −i 2πft dt
∫
−∞
F {h(t )∗ g (t )} → H ( f )G ( f )
To
obtain:
Sn ( f ) = P( f )H ( f )A( f )B(rn , zn , f )
27
Analysis
Excita>on
pulse
is
in
general
a
windowed
sinusoidal
func>on
of
a
few
cycles.
Window
may
be
GAUS
or
decaying
exponen>al:
{
p(t ) = ℜ A(t )ei 2πft }
1
0.75
1
0.5
0.5
0.25
0 0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5
t
-0.25
-0.5
-0.5
-1
28
14
4/3/14
Analysis
This
is
a
diffrac>on
limited
system.
Experimental
point
spread
func>on:
1 Center frequency shift with
0.8
.2MHz
.4MHz
diffraction
0.6
B(r)^2
df(To=6.6)
0.4 .6MHz 2.5
df(To=4.94)
2
0.2 .8MHz
MHz
1.5 df(To=3.96)
1.0MHz
0 1
0.5
df(To=2.47)
df(To=1.98)
1 20 39 58 0 5 10
df(To=1.32)
No. of Scans
R (mm)
Slight
downshin
with
diffrac>on
(lowpass
filter)
29
Analysis
n
Scacering
is
a
frequency-‐dependent
func>on:
kf
k,
n
depend
on
geometry
and
size
of
scacerer.
1.2 To=1.98µs Center frequency shift with
Normalized spectrum
spectrum scattering
1 Ps(n=1)
0.8
0.6 Ps1(n=1.5) df(To=6.59)
2.8
0.4 Ps2(n=2) 2.6
df(To=4.94)
MHz
Slight
upshin
of
center
frequency
(Highpass
filter)
30
15
4/3/14
Diffrac>on
Acenua>on
scacering
transducer
0
5
10
f
in
MHz
Frequency window
Scan
Reference ta
L
tb
16
4/3/14
A-‐line
RF
signal
33
•
Posi>onal
informa>on
is
determined
by
knowing
the
direc>on
of
the
pulse
entering
the
pa>ent
and
measuring
the
>me
it
takes
the
echo
to
return
to
the
transducer.
Range
equa>on:
2d
v=
t
130 ms
39 ms
13 ms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
34
17
4/3/14
transducer
... t
or
z
surface
...
collected A-lines
35
18
4/3/14
37
π −∞
'
The
inverse
of
the
Hilbert
transform
can
be
found
by
using
the
convolu>on
theorem
F{FHi (x )} = iF (ω )SGN (ω )
The
Hilbert
transform
corresponds
to
the
mul>plica>on
by
iSGN(w)
in
the
frequency
domain.
Inverse
Hilbert
transform
is
the
mul>plica>on
by
–iSGN(w).
We
can
actually
code
this
in
Matlab
or
IDL…
or
use
the
implemented
func>ons:
38
19
4/3/14
40
20
4/3/14
41
B-‐mode
Intensity
is
I (s(t )) = E 2 (s(t )) = ℜ2 (s(t )) + ℑ2 (s(t ))
A-‐line
B-‐Mode
Stack
lines
up
next
to
each
other
42
21
4/3/14
Waves
Human
>ssues
have
a
high
water
content
è
assume
waves
in
body
behave
like
waves
propaga>ng
in
liquids.
Waves
obey
the
principle
of
linearity,
which
means
that
they
keep
their
shape
as
they
change
amplitude,
and
different
scaled
version
of
waves
at
the
same
loca>on
can
synthesize
more
complicated
waves…
Superposi>on…
think
ripples
in
a
pond…
Three
types
of
waves:
plane,
spherical,
cylindrical.
To
facilitate
analysis
let’s
assume
waves
propagate
in
unbounded
fluid
medium.
Waves
in
fluids
propagate
longitudinally
(compressional
wave).
44
22
4/3/14
Waves
Par>cles
are
displaced
from
equilibrium
state
by
a
displacement
amplitude
u,
at
a
par>cle
velocity
v
as
the
wave
goes
through
the
medium
u
pressure
>me
Assume
direc>on
of
travel
is
along
z-‐axis.
The
>me
required
to
travel
from
one
posi>on
to
another
is
determined
by
the
longitudinal
speed
of
sound
z
t=
cl
The
wavenumber
is
defined
as
ω 2πf
kl = =
cl cl 45
Wavenumber
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Degrees
-0.5
-1
46
23
4/3/14
Waves
Assume
a
homogeneous,
isotropic
and
perfectly
elas>c
fluid.
To
arrive
to
the
wave
equa>on
we
need
to
consider
three
other
equa>ons
first:
Equa>on
of
state:
Relates
the
internal
restoring
forces
to
the
corresponding
deforma>ons…
look
for
a
linear
rela>onship…
For
a
perfect
gas
we
have
p = ρrTK
p
=
pressure,
r
=
density,
TK
is
temperature
in
degrees
Kelvin,
r
=
constant
Acous>c
processes
are
known
to
be
nearly
adiaba>c,
i.e.
negligible
exchange
of
thermal
energy
from
one
par>cle
of
fluid
to
the
other,
therefore
γ
p ⎛ρ ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ For
a
perfect
gas
p0 ⎜⎝ ρ0 ⎟⎠
47
⎛ ρ − ρ0 ⎞
p − p0 = B⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ0 ⎠
⎛ ∂p ⎞
B = ρ 0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Adiaba>c
bulk
modulus
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ ρ0
48
24
4/3/14
∂ρvx
ρv x ρvx + dx
∂x
Volume
element
dV
=
dxdydz
fixed
in
space
through
which
fluid
travels.
Net
rate
through
which
mass
flows
into
volume
must
be
equal
to
the
increase
of
mass
within
the
volume.
Net
influx
of
mass
is
given
by
⎧ ⎡ ∂ρvx ⎤ ⎫ ∂ρvx
⎨ρvx − ⎢ ρvx + dx ⎥ ⎬dydz = − dV
⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ ⎭ ∂x
Same
in
the
other
direc>ons,
therefore…
49
∂s
+∇⋅v = 0 linear
∂t
50
25
4/3/14
Force
Equa>on
Consider
a
fluid
element
dV
=
dxdydz,
with
mass
dm
that
moves
with
the
fluid.
Newton’s
second
law:
dF
=
a
dm
If
we
assume
no
viscosity
then
⎡ ⎛ ∂p ⎞⎤ ∂p
dFx = ⎢ p − ⎜ p + dx ⎟⎥ dydz = − dV
⎣ ⎝ ∂ x ⎠ ⎦ ∂x
Same
in
other
direc>ons,
therefore
dF = −∇pdV
Now
we
need
to
work
on
the
accelera>on
side
of
the
equa>on
51
Force
Equa>on
The
par>cle
velocity
v
is
a
func>on
of
>me
and
space.
When
the
fluid
element
with
velocity
v(x,y,z,t)
at
(x,y,z),
and
>me
t
moves
to
a
new
loca>on
(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)
at
a
>me
t+dt,
the
new
velocity
is
v(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz,t+dt),
therefore
accelera>on
is
v(x + vx dt , y + v y dt , z + vz dt , t + dt )− v(x, y, z, t )
a = lim
dt →0 dt
We
also
know
that
dx
=
vxdt,
dy
=
vydt
and
dz
=
vzdt
Assume
small
increments
in
both
distance
and
>me
è
keep
only
first
terms
in
Taylor
series
(
v x + v dt + y + v dt + z + v dt , t + dt =
x y z )
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
v ( x, y , z , t ) + vx dt + v y dt + vz dt + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
52
26
4/3/14
Force
Equa>on
So
the
accelera>on
of
the
fluid
element
is
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a= + vx + vy + vz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
We
can
define
an
operator
as
follows
(v ⋅ ∇) = vx ∂ + v y ∂ + vz ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Then
∂v
a= + (v ⋅ ∇ )v
∂t
Now,
subs>tute
dm
=
ρdV
into
Newton’s
law
and:
dF = −∇pdV
dF
= −∇p
dV
53
Force
Equa>on
So
⎛ ∂v ⎞
ρ ⎜ + (v ⋅ ∇ )v ⎟ = −∇p
⎝ ∂t ⎠
This
is
the
nonlinear,
inviscid
force
equa>on,
also
known
as
Euler’s
equa>on.
If
we
assume
that
the
liquid
is
incompressible
(|s|<<1)
and
that
the
par>cle
velocity
is
related
to
displacement
as:
∂u
v=
∂t
∂v
In
other
words,
(
v
⋅
∇
)
v
<<
and
∂t
∂v
Linearized
force
equa>on.
ρ = −∇p
∂t
54
27
4/3/14
Waves
In
frequency
domain
V (ω ) = iωU (ω )
Define
velocity
poten>al
f
as
v = ∇φ
Such
that
pressure
is
∂φ
p = −ρ
∂t
55
Wave
equa>on
For
a
harmonic
wave,
in
the
freq.
domain:
P(ω) = −iωρΦ (ω)
ρ
is
density
of
fluid
at
rest.
1D
travel
of
a
wave
in
rectangular
coordinates
is
given
by
the
wave
eq.
∂ 2φ 1 ∂ 2φ
− =0
∂z 2 cl2 ∂t 2
Longitudinal
speed
of
sound
depends
on
the
material
and
is
given
by
γBT
cl =
ρ0
Check
units!
g
is
the
ra>o
of
specific
heats,
ρ0
is
the
density,
BT
is
the
isothermal
bulk
modulus.
56
28
4/3/14
Wave
equa>on
Combine
the
three
linearized
equa>ons
(state,
con>nuity,
force)
into
a
single
differen>al
equa>on
with
one
variable.
Par>cle
velocity
can
be
eliminated
with
∂s ∂v
+ ∇ ⋅ v = 0 and ρ = −∇p
∂t ∂t
Take
divergence
of
right
equa>on:
⎛ ∂v ⎞
∇ ⋅ ⎜ ρ ⎟ = −∇ ⋅ (∇p )
⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂v
ρ∇ ⋅ = −∇ 2 p ...........(1)
∂t
Take
>me
deriva>ve
of
len
equa>on
∂ ⎛ ∂s ⎞
⎜ + ∇⋅ v⎟ = 0
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂2s ∂v
+∇⋅ = 0 ..........(2 )
∂t 2 ∂t 57
Wave
equa>on
From
(1)
∂v − ∇ 2 p
∇⋅ =
∂t ρ
From
(2)
∂v ∂2s
∇⋅ =− 2
∂t ∂t
∂2s ∂2s
− ∇ p = −ρ 2 ⇒ ∇2 p = ρ 2
2
∂t ∂t
From
equa>on
of
state:
p = Bs
∂2s ∂2 p / B
⇒ =
∂t 2 ∂t 2
58
29
4/3/14
Wave
equa>on
Then
ρ ∂2 p
∇2 p =
B ∂t 2
1 ∂2 p
⇒ ∇2 p =
c ∂t 2
Where
c
was
defined
in
slide
56
and
is
the
phase
speed.
59
Solu>on
Plane
wave
solu>on
is
φ (z, t ) = g (t − z / cl ) + h(t + z / cl )
A
specific
solu>on
is
given
by
a
>me
harmonic
φ = φ0 (exp[i (ωt − kl z )] + exp[i (ωt + kl z )])
In
the
lab
we
deal
with
real
func>ons,
therefore
p = p0 Re{exp[i (ωt − kl z )]}= p0 cos(ωt − kl z )
Phase
can
be
seen
as
i (ωt ± kl z ) = iω(t ± z / cl )
z/cl
is
the
travel
>me
due
to
speed
of
sound.
60
30
4/3/14
3D
wave
equa>on
1 ∂ 2φ
∇2φ − =0
c 2 ∂t 2
With
solu>on
φ = φ0 (exp[i (ωt − k ⋅ r )] + exp[i (ωt + k ⋅ r )])
Laplacian
in
spherical
coordinates
is:
∂2 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂2
∇2 = + + 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 2
∂r 2
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂φ 2
Where
x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ 61
3D
wave
equa>on
But
p
is
a
func>on
of
radial
distance,
not
of
θ
and
φ therefore
62
31
4/3/14
3D
wave
equa>on
In
higher
dimensionality
k
is
expressed
in
terms
of
projec>ons
to
Cartesian
axes:
k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
And
r
is
the
direc>on
of
plane
wave.
63
Wave
equa>on
Ra>o
of
a
forward
traveling
pressure
wave
to
the
par>cle
velocity
of
the
fluid
is
the
specific
acous>c
impedance,
a.k.a.
characteris>c
impedance
p
Z l = = ρ0 cl
vl
Units
of
impedance
are
Rayl
=
kg/m2
s.
Zl
is
nega>ve
for
backward
traveling
waves.
Up
to
here
we’ve
studied
propaga>on
of
waves
in
liquids.
Solids
support
other
types
of
waves:
shear,
Lamb,
surface
or
Rayleigh
64
32
4/3/14
Impedance
Incident pulse
Reflected
pulse
Z1
Transmiced pulse Z2
Perpendicular
incidence.
The
strengths
of
the
reflected
and
transmiced
pulses
are
determined
by
the
impedances
of
the
two
media
at
the
boundary
65
Pr 1 2
Pt
Pi
z
=
0
Incident
wave
is:
pi = Pi e i (ωt − k1 z )
When
it
strikes
boundary
there
will
be
a
reflected
wave:
pr = Pr ei (ωt + k1 z )
66
33
4/3/14
pt = Pt ei (ωt − k 2 z )
Condition (1) means that there is no net force on the plane separating fluids.
Condition (2) means that the fluids must be in contact.
67
34
4/3/14
( pi + pr ) vt = pt ( vi + vr )
1 1
−
pr z1 z2 z2 − z1
= = =R
pi 1 + 1 z2 + z1
z1 z2 69
In
words,
R
is
always
real,
posi>ve
when
z1
<
z2
and
nega>ve
when
z1
>
z2.
At
the
boundary
the
acous>c
pressure
of
the
reflected
wave
is
either
in
phase
or
180°
out
of
phase
with
the
incident
wave.
If
z2
>
z1
a
posi>ve
pressure
in
incident
wave
is
reflected
as
a
posi>ve
pressure.
If
z1
>
z2
a
posi>ve
pressure
is
reflected
as
a
nega>ve
pressure.
If
z1
=
z2
,
R
=
0,
complete
transmission.
70
35
4/3/14
Intensity
Power
is
the
rate
at
which
energy
is
transferred.
Measured
in
wacs.
Beam
area
is
expressed
in
cm2
Therefore
Intensity
is
measured
in
mW/cm2
Intensity
is
important
when
discussing
bioeffects
and
safety.
Intensity
is
propor>onal
to
the
square
of
the
amplitude.
So
if
amplitude
is
squared,
intensity
is
quadrupled.
p2
I=
2 ρc
p
is
pressure,
ρ
is
density
and
c
is
speed
of
sound.
72
36
4/3/14
It 4 z1 z2
TI = =
I i (z1 + z2 )2
73
Oblique
incidence
Impedance
boundaries
are
not
necessarily
perpendicular
to
ultrasound
beam.
θi
=
incident
angle
θi
θr
Z1
θr
=
reflec>on
angle
x
=
0
Z2
θt
=
transmission
angle,
depends
on
propaga>on
θt
speed
in
the
media.
θi
=
θr
74
37
4/3/14
Oblique
incidence
Incident,
reflected
and
transmiced
waves
are:
pi = Pi ei (ωt −k1 x cosθi −k1 y sinθi )
pr = Pr ei (ωt + k1 x cosθ r −k1 y sinθ r )
pt = Pt ei (ωt −k2 x cosθt −k2 y sinθt )
Con>nuity
of
pressure
at
boundary
x
=
0
implies
Pi e − ik1 y sin θi + Pr e −ik1 y sin θ r = Pt e −ik2 y sin θt
If
this
is
the
same
for
all
y,
then
the
exponents
must
be
all
equal,
and
sin θ i sin θ t
sin θi = sin θ r and
= Snell’s
law
c1 c2
75
Oblique incidence
If
exponents
are
all
equal
,
then
the
con>nuity
of
pressure
at
the
boundary
reduces
to
1+ R = T …(1)
Condi>on
of
con>nuity
of
the
normal
component
of
the
par>cle
velocity
is:
vi cosθi + vr cosθ r = vt cosθt
Remember
that
p/v
=
z
and
θi
=
θr
then
z cosθ t
1− R = 1 T … (2)
z 2 cos θ i
⎛ z 2 ⎞ + ⎛ cosθ t ⎞
⎜ z ⎟ ⎜ cosθ i ⎟⎠
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 76
38
4/3/14
Oblique
incidence
From
Snell’s
law
we
can
also
see
that
2
cosθt = 1 − sin 2 θ t = 1 − ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ sin 2 θi
c
…(1)
⎝ c1 ⎠
What
else
can
we
infer?
If
c1
>
c2,
angle
of
transmission
θt
is
real
and
less
than
the
angle
of
incidence.
If
c1
<
c2
and
θi
<
θc
(cri>cal
angle
sin
θc
=c1/c2),
angle
of
transmission
is
real
but
greater
than
angle
of
incidence.
If
c2
<
c1
and
θi
>
θc
…
From
(1)
above
note
that
sin
θt
is
real
but
greater
than
1
which
means
that
cos
θt
is
pure
imaginary
…
which
means
that
Oblique
incidence
Transmiced
wave
propagates
parallel
to
the
boundary
and
its
amplitude
decays
perpendicular
to
the
direc>on
of
propaga>on.
Finally,
the
fact
that
sin
θ
i
=
sin
θ
r
means
that
the
reflected
and
incident
beams
have
the
same
cross-‐sec>onal
areas
so
power
reflec>on
coefficient
is
Rp
=
|R|2.
Since
energy
must
be
preserved
power
reflec>on
coefficient
+
power
transmission
coefficient
=
1,
therefore
cosθ t
4⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟
z
⎝ z1 ⎠ cosθ i
Tπ = 2
⎛ z2 + cosθ t ⎞
⎜ z cosθ i ⎟⎠
⎝ 1
78
39
4/3/14
Oblique
incidence
When
z2/z1
=
cos
θt/cos
θi
power
reflec>on
coefficient
is
0
(all
incident
power
is
transmiced).
By
the
way,
using
above
condi>on
and
Snell’s
law
we
can
derive
another
expression:
2 2
⎛ z2 ⎞ − 1 1 − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
z
⎜ z ⎟ z2 ⎠
sin θ I = ⎝ 1⎠
= ⎝
2 2 2
⎛ z 2 ⎞ − ⎛ c2 ⎞
⎜ z ⎟ ⎜ c ⎟ 1 − ⎛⎜ ρ1 ⎞⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ ρ2 ⎠
Which
is
known
as
the
angle
of
intromission.
(It
only
happens
if
z1
<
z2
and
ρ1
<
ρ2
or
z1
>
z2
and
ρ1
>
ρ2).
If
angle
of
incidence
approaches
90°
(grazing
incidence)
then
cos
θi
è
0
and
R
≈
-‐1
(complete
reflec>on)
79
Refrac>on
A
change
in
the
direc>on
of
sound
when
crossing
a
boundary.
Refrac>on
induces
lateral
posi>on
errors
on
an
image.
θi
θi
θi
Z1
Z2
θt
θt
θt
40
4/3/14
Refrac>on
Rule
of
thumb:
If
speed
increases
1%
as
sound
enters
medium
2,
the
transmission
angle
will
be
≈
1%
greater
than
incident
angle.
If
perpendicular
incidence,
no
refrac>on.
If
boundary
is
smooth,
reflec>ons
are
specular.
If
reflec>ng
object
is
the
size
of
the
wavelength
or
smaller,
or
if
boundary
is
rough,
then
incident
sound
will
be
scacered.
Backscacer
intensi>es
vary
with
frequency
and
scacerer
size.
↑
frequency,
↑
intensity
81
Refrac>on
82
41
4/3/14
Acenua>on
Weakening
of
sound
as
it
propagates.
It
limits
imaging
depth
and
the
instrument
must
compensate
for
it.
Acenua>on
includes
absorp>on
(conversion
to
heat),
and
reflec>on
and
scacering
of
the
sound
as
it
encounters
>ssue
interfaces.
Absorp>on
is
the
main
factor
that
contributes
to
acenua>on.
Echoes
from
reflec>on
and
scacering
are
essen>al
to
create
an
image
but
contribute
licle
to
acenua>on.
Acenua>on
is
quan>fied
in
decibels
(dB).
Acenua>on
coefficient
(a)
is
the
acenua>on
that
occurs
with
each
cm
the
sound
wave
travels.
The
farther
the
sound
travels
the
greater
the
acenua>on.
Acenua>on
• Forward
traveling
plane
wave
in
+z
direc>on
p ( 0,t ) = A0 f ( t )
Az = A0 e− µa z
• Where
µ
a
is
the
amplitude
acenua>on
factor
[cm-‐1]
1 A
µa = − ln z
z A0
42
4/3/14
Acenua>on
Az
20 log = Amplitude gain in dB
A0
Acenua>on
43
4/3/14
Acenua>on
44