WAVES Lecture Notes

OSCILLATIONS and WAVES Equation of displacement:

If motion starts from equilibrium (at t=0 y=0)
1. Circular motion y (t)= A Sin(ωt)
A: Amplitude
Rotation Units ω ω: Angular frequency (ω=2πf)
1rev = 2π rad = 360 deg (ωt) : phase (angle)

Definitions Relation with circular motion:

Period (T): Time of one complete rotation.
Unit: sec.

Frequency (f, ν): Number of revolutions in one second.

rev 1
Unit: = = Hz
s s
1 A A
Therefore: f= y
T ωt
0
[f = N/t and T = t/N (N:number of revs)] t=0

Angular velocity (ω): Angle rotated in one sec. -A

θ
ω= ⇒ Unit: rad/s
t
[Angular velocity is sometimes called angular Ex: Oscillation of a mass-spring system is given by
frequency (or cyclic frequency) because:] y (t) = 10 Sin (8πt) in centimeters.
Note: Frequency and ω actually measure the same (a) Find amplitude, frequency, and period.
quantity (rotation rate) only with different units. (b) Find distance from eq. at t = 0.5 s
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[f is how many rotations in one second, ω is how many (c) Find phase of oscillation at t=0.5 s
radians in one second]
rev rad Ex: Mass-spring system makes 5 complete oscillations
f = ; ω= in 10 s between two points 14 cm apart starting from
s s equilibrium. Write equation y(t) =?
[Since 1 rev = 2π rad
f = 1 rev/s ⇒ ω = 2π rad/s Ex: m=4kg mass oscillates at the end of k= 100 N/m
f = 2 rev/s ⇒ ω = 4π rad/s spring. Write equation y(t)=? if amplitude is 18 cm.
f = 3 rev/s ⇒ ω = 6π rad/s]
2π Phase difference (∆φ):
ω = 2π f =
T Two systems oscillating same frequency one started ∆t
earlier (or earlier).
2. Harmonic oscillations

v= 0

A
y A
0 (Equilibrium) ∆φ y2 y1
ωt
0
-A
-A
v= 0
Definitions
Equilibrium point: Where F=0 y1 (t) = A Sin (ωt)
Displacement (y): Distance from equilibrium point. y2 (t) = A Sin (ωt + ∆φ)
Changes with time: y = y(t)
Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement from Ex: Two mass-spring systems oscillating with same
equilibrium. [A = constant if no friction] period T=4 s and A=10 cm. One starts at t=0 the other
Period (T): Time to complete one cycle ∆t=1s later from equilibrium. Write y(t) for both.
Frequency (f): Number of oscillations in one sec. Solution:
ω=2π/T ⇒ ω=π/2 rad/s
One oscillation: or y1= A Sin (ωt)
y2= A Sin (ωt-∆φ) ( ∆φ = ω∆t )

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WAVES Lecture Notes

Special cases WAVE MOTION

• Material waves: Water waves, sound waves,
earthquake waves.
• Electromagnetic waves: Radio, radar, infrared, light,
ultraviolet, gamma…

[We will learn about: 1. Waves on a spring, 2. Water

A waves, 3. Sound waves, 4. Light waves, 5. EM waves
∆φ=0 0 in turn.
In phase -A We will see all these waves share the same common
properties:
∆φ=180° a) Reflection, b) refraction (transmission),
Completely out of phase c)interference (superposition) and d) diffraction]

Equation of displacement Wave motion is propagation of a disturbance through

Special cases: y an elastic medium. Particles of medium are not
A transferred, energy is transferred.
1. Starting from equilibrium t
y (t) =A Sin(ωt) a pulse
-A

y
2. Starting from maximum: A
y (t) =A Sin(ωt+90°) t
y (t) =A Cos(ωt)
-A
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y
In general: A
Sinusoidal (Harmonic) Waves
y(t) = A Sin(ωt+φ) [are produced by a source performing simple harmonic
t
motion]
(φ = phase const) -A
v Crest

Ex: Given y=12 Sin (20πt+π/6)

(a) Find A=? f=? T=?
(b) Where does the object start to move from? f

Ex: Given y1=A Sin(ωt+φ1)

y2=A Sin(ωt+φ2) Find phase difference Trough
Definitions
a) Wavelength (λ): Distance between two crests
Definition:
Unit: meter
If phase difference between the sources is constant
(∆φ=const) sources are “coherent”.
b) Period (T): Time needed for one wavelength to pass
a point. Therefore period is the time of production of
Extra:
one wavelength by source.
Velocity and acceleration formulas in harmonic motion
Unit: second

c) Frequency (f): Number of waves (λ’s) passing a

point in one second.
Unit: wave/s, 1/s, Hz (f = 1/T)

d) Amplitude: Maximum displacement from

equilibrium.
Unit: meter
λ

-A

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WAVES Lecture Notes

I. WAVES ON A SPRING Rule: v is determined by medium

1. Velocity f is determined by source
v λ is determined by λ=v/f
A Amplitude does not have any relation with any of these
three.
Speed of a pulse depends on two factors:
Energy transmitted by spring waves:
• Force stretching the spring (F) (Power transmitted) ~ (density) (amplitude)2 (freq)2 (vel)
• Linear density (µ)
M In general (for most sinusoidal waves)
(µ = ; Unit: kg/m) Power ~ A2 f 2
L
F Ex: If wave loses energy due to friction while traveling
Formula is: v = {DEMO}
µ v, f , λ do not change. Amplitude decreases.
Therefore: Speed of wave is determined by the λ λ
properties of the medium. Speed can not be changed f
from the source.
{DEMO}
Therefore: If forces equal 2. Superposition (interference) of spring waves:

vlight vheavy
y1 y2

vlight > vheavy y y=y1+y2

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Two types of waves:

• Transverse wave: Particle’s motion is perpendicular
to wave velocity.
v

[Waves continue to move passing through each other

• Longitudinal wave: Particles move parallel to as if nothing has happened]
velocity. v Completely out of phase:

y
Relation among v, f, λ:
v y
λ
f

distance
v=
time
λ y
λ
v = , v = λf v = λf = y
T T
[Analogy: λ is length of one step as you walk, and f is
how many steps you take in one sec.]
Ex: Ex:
Ex: 20 waves are produced by a source in 4 seconds.
(a) Determine f=? and T=?
(b) Find v=? if λ=20 cm.

Ex: What is the frequency of radio waves having 300

m wavelength?

Ex: 5 wave crests pass through a point in 1 sec. Find

λ=? if v=48 cm/s.
Ans: 12 cm

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WAVES Lecture Notes

2. Reflection of spring waves II. WATER WAVES

• From fixed end • From free end 1. Propagation
Ripple tank: light
A
180°
phase
diff

2A

dark dark dark

bright bright bright bright

A Wave front: Line connecting all the points reached by

a wave at the same instant as it propagates. [Line
3. Transmission (refraction) of spring waves connecting points at the same phase]
• From light to heavy spring
Straight waves: Circular waves:
vlight v

v
vheavy

vlight
trough crest
• From heavy to light spring
Rule: Velocity of wave is always
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vheavy perpendicular to wave fronts.

v v v

vlight
vheavy

wave front
{The pulse length in heavy spring is always smaller because 2. Reflection
frequency does not change during transmission and velocity is {All to be demonstrated in ripple tank}
smaller. Also in the second picture, if amplitude of incident wave is [a) Straight wave-barrier:
A, amplitude of transmitted wave is between A and 2A (between
fixed and free end reflections). Amplitude of reflected wave is even
smaller than A since energy is shared }
i
Facts: (During transmission)
r
1. Frequency does not change [Number of coming
waves can not be different from number of transmitted
waves]
2. Velocity and wavelength change {Draw mirror analogies, indicate that velocity vector
3. Transmitted wave never inverted [no phase diff. for corresponds to direction of light ray}
transmitted waves]
b) Straight wave- circular barrier:
[Summary: We learnt
a) Superposition (=interference)
b) Reflection
c) Transmission (=Refraction)
of waves on a spring]

{Explain mirror analogy}

c) Circular wave- circular barrier:

F F

{Show mirror analogies}]

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WAVES Lecture Notes

Reflection law: Ex: shallow

K
i r
i
r
L L
K
deep
Measuring speed of a wave: Frequencies are equal.
Defn:
Ex:
∆x
v v=
∆t source
∆x

Using stroboscope:
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

Both observers
measure the
same frequency
2 1 3
2
3 4 4 1
ω
When waves seem to stop:
fwave = N fstroboscope (N=number of slits)
fw = N fs Law of refraction
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[Waves will seem to stop at different frequencies of [In geometrical optics Snell’s law we found starting
stroboscope.{Why?} We use the highest frequency in from v1/v2 = Sinθ1/Sinθ2, which we wrote without
the formula. {Why?}] proof. Now we are verifying it.]
To find speed we use v = f λ.

3. Refraction of Water Waves v2

Rules:
1. Frequency of waves depend on the source. θ1
Frequency does not change when medium changes. λ2 θ2
2. Speed of waves depend on medium. In deep water
waves are faster, in shallow water waves are slower.
λ1
v
3. Since λ = , wavelength changes when medium
f
changes. v1

Therefore since f=const.: fd = fs

vd vs v1 λ1 Sinθ1
= = = [Correct for any kind of wave]
↑ v = f λ ↑, ↓v= fλ ↓ λd λs v 2 λ2 Sinθ 2

Verify:
vd vs
θ2 B
λd λs
λ1
shallow θ1
deep λ2 A

vd vs Sinθ1 λ1 AB λ1 v1 f v
= = = = 1
λd λs Sinθ 2 λ2 AB λ2 v 2 f v 2

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WAVES Lecture Notes

Note: In Snell’s law we used angle with normal. Now b) Reflection:

we are using angle with wave front. But:

θ
N

v
θ
wave
fronts
c) Refraction:

4. Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave passing through
a narrow opening.
[Diffraction is a common wave property observed in
all kinds of waves, just like all the other properties we
are learning for water waves]

a
[Show that v1/v2=Sinθ1/Sinθ2]
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λ
6. Interference
{Show the two-source interference pattern on water
λ surface (or if not available, video or java animation,
Diffraction amount depends on proportion. but an animation will never be as useful as a real ripple
a
tank application)}
If a>>λ diffraction is negligible.
Node: The lines on water surface connecting the points
where a crest from a source and a trough from the other
cancel each other are called “nodal lines”.
Antinode: The lines along which two crests ot two
troughs meet.
n=1 n=1
n=2 n=2

[As the second figure shows, diffraction is never zero.

n=3 n=3
Even the smallest deviation from the straight path will
be significant after long distances. Therefore: it is
impossible to send waves on a straight line over long
distances. When we were learning geometrical optics
Properties: If sources are in phase,
we said “light rays travel on straight paths”. It was an
approximation that holds for small distances, and 1. Central line is an antinode
when light does not pass through small (comparable to 2. Nodes are symmetrical around central line
3. Nodes are numbered as in figure [starting from the
its wavelength) holes.]
one closest to central line.]
5. Huygens’ principle:
Any point on a wave front of light may be regarded as Path difference (δ):
the source of secondary waves. n=2
[Using this principle, we can explain any wave Path difference :
P
phenomenon. We will now give three examples] δ = r1 − r2
a) Propagation: r1
r2

s1 s2

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WAVES Lecture Notes
n=1 n=2 Ex: Draw pattern of nodes and antinodes.
B n=1 (node)
Ex: Find speed of
A water waves, if P
λ frequency is given as
15 Hz.
24 cm 21 cm
s1 s2
On node n=1:
Path diff. for point A: δ = r1-r2 = 2.5λ-2λ=0.5λ s1 s2
Path diff. for point B: δ = r1-r2 = 3.5λ-3λ=0.5λ
{Do it for points on n=2 antinode} Ex: Two sources produce {not necessarily water}
Therefore: waves at 50 Hz frequency and 0.7 cm amplitude. Speed
On n=1 node ⇒ δ = 0.5 λ of waves in the medium is 100 cm/s. Find the wave
On n=2 node ⇒ δ = 1.5 λ amplitude at a point
On n=3 node ⇒ δ = 2.5 λ a) 20 cm and 26 cm to the sources
On n=3 node ⇒ δ = 3.5 λ b) 19 cm and 21 cm to the sources

Because: 7. Phase of a point on the wave

All points on a sinusoidal wave performs simple
2.5 λ harmonic motion with same frequency but different
phase constant.
s1 s1
y = A Sin (ω t )

3λ
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s2 s2

y = A Sin ( ω t − φ3 )
In general: δ = r1 − r2 y = A Sin ( ω t − φ 2 )

y = A Sin ( ω t − φ1 )
Node Antinode

δ =  n −  λ
1
δ =nλ
 2

n= 0N , 1, 2, ...
n = 1, 2, 3, ... central line ωt
φ
[ Ex: What is the name of the shape of a node or
antinode? {Parabola, hyperbola, ellipse …?}]

Ex: {Measuring wavelength by using interference

pattern}. Point P on the second node is 14 cm and
17cm away from the sources. Find λ. Sources are in Ex:
λ
phase.
p
Ex: Point P is at respective distances 24 cm and 34 cm s
from the sources. Sources are in phase and producing
waves having 4 cm wavelength. Define point P. (On -A
which node or antinode is it?)
x
Ex: Find the distance n=2 (node)
|s2B| A
Point s oscillates with equation ys= A Sin (ωt)
Find equation of oscillation of point p.
B Solution:
29 cm 20 cm
ys= A Sin (ωt) ⇒
φ x
s1 s2 yp= A Sin (ωt - φ) =
19 cm 2π λ

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WAVES Lecture Notes

Ex: Point P on a long string oscillates as Ex: Write node and n

π antinode formulas if P
y= A Sin (100πt+ ) as a sinusoidal wave travels to one source starts ∆t
4
later. r1
right directionwith speed v = 10 m/s. Find equation of
oscillation of points r2
a) 15 cm to the right of P b) 35 cm to the right of P
b) 15 cm to the left of P. s1 s2
∆φ ∆ x Sol: Now we have both time and path delay. Therefore
Hint: =
2π λ we add the effects:
∆φ δ ∆t
8. Phase difference between waves = +
2π λ T
Phase difference caused by two factors:
[For all points on n=1 node ∆φ = π
a) Path difference (δ):
For all points on n=2 node ∆φ = 3π
Sources start together but distances are different:
For all points on n=3 node ∆φ = 5π]
λ For all points on n’th node ∆φ = (2n-1)π
s1
P1 ( 2n − 1) π δ ∆t
= +
2π λ T
δ 1 ∆t
s2 = n− −
δ P2 λ 2 T
s1 and s2 are moving together (in phase), but P1 and P2  1 ∆t 
δ =  n − −  λ (n = 1, 2, 3, 4…)
are not.  2 T
∆φ δ In general:
Since 1 λ ⇔ 2π =
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2π λ If one starts ∆t later (or earlier):

∆t 1
n’th node: δ =  n ± −  λ
Ex: Special cases:  T 2
For all points on: ∆t
n’th antinode: δ =  n ±  λ
 T
Node n=1(δ = 0.5 λ ⇒ ∆φ = π) { ± in formula is about starting earlier or later. But
Node n=2 (δ = 1.5 λ ⇒ ∆φ = 3π) since there are two sources and we choose one of them
Node n=3 (δ = 2.5 λ ⇒ ∆φ = 5π) as the reference (starting at t=0) arbitrarily, we can
always use + in the formula}
Antinode n=0 (δ = 0 ⇒ ∆φ = 0)
Antinode n=1 (δ = 1 λ ⇒ ∆φ = 2π) Special case:
Antinode n=2 (δ = 2 λ ⇒ ∆φ = 4π) T
If ∆t = ⇒ ( ∆φ =180D ) ⇒ sources completely out
2
b) Time delay (∆t): Distances equal but one source of phase, nodes and antinodes change place. Central
starts ∆t later. line becomes a node.
λ
P1 Ex: Two sources wave sources have the same period
s1
0.4 s. One of the sources start 0.1 s. later. Find phase
difference between the sources.
P2
s2 Ex: Two sources on water surface produce waves of
same frequency. (λ=4cm). Find phase difference of
waves at a point 25 cm and 24 cm away from the
In general: waves if sources start together (sources in phase).
Since 1 λ ⇔ 1 T ⇔ 2π
Ex: Point P is 17 cm and 14 cm away from the sources.
Phase diff Path difference Time difference Find phase difference of waves at point P if λ=0.6 cm.
⇔ ⇔
2π Wavelength Period Soiurces in phase.

Ex: a)Two sources wave sources have the same period

∆φ δ ∆φ ∆t 0.4 s. One of the sources start 0.1 s. later. Find phase
= and =
2π λ 2π T difference between the sources.
b) Find phase difference between waves at a point 23.8
cm and 24.3 cm away from the sources. (λ=3cm)

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WAVES Lecture Notes

III. SOUND WAVES

STANDING WAVES

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