ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 3.

FIBROCARTILAGE
› Resists both strong compression and strong tension
SKELETAL SYSTEM forces
› Occurs in certain ligaments and certain cartilages
(insert 1st image) that experience both of these forces
› Perfect structural intermediate between hyaline
cartilage and dense regular connective tissue
› Ex: annulus fibrous portion of the discs between
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM the vertebrae and in the articular discs of some
o “steel grinders” and “reinforced concrete” of the body joints
o Provide support › Can be found where most tension happens
o Protect organs
o Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
o Storage of minerals and fats (insert 3rd image)
o Makes blood cells; cite of blood components
› Particularly the red bone marrow (yellow bone Bone structure
marrow if for fat storage) - composed of 20 percent water ‘
› Storage of fats and minerals
- 2/3
CARTILAGES IN THE BODY
o Cartilage in the external ear BONE AS AN ORGAN
o Cartilage in the nose o Compact: hard, dense, found near the surface where strength
o Articular cartilage is required
o Costal cartilage o Spongy (cancellous): mesh like; found in ends of long bones
o Cartilages in the larynx and center of flat bones
o Cartilages that hold open the air tubes of the respiratory o Marrow: loose connective tissue that fills cavities of bones
system › RED: produces formed elements of blood
o Cartilage in the disc between the vertebrate › YELLOW: made up of fatty tissue – has no blood
o Cartilage in the pubic symphysis production function
o Cartilage that form the articular within certain movable › PARTS:
 PERIOSTEUM: connective tissue that
joints
surrounds the bone
o Cartilage: provide support or protection
 ENDOSTEUM: inner lining of bones
SKELETAL SYSTEM COMPOSITION (connective tissue)  HAVERSIAN CANAL: duct in bone
o Bones that contains blood vessels
o Ligaments
TWO BASIC TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
o Cartilage 1. COMPACT BONE
o Tendons o Dense and hard
o Surrounds the entire bone
(insert 2nd image)
o Found outside the bones
TYPES OF CARTILAGE o Protects the bone
1. HYALINE o Homogenous
› “glass” 2. SPONGY BONE
› Most abundant kind of cartilage o Porous (where red and yellow marrow are found)
› Contains only one type of fiber; fibril o Cancellous
› Has a gelatinous group substance that holds large o Many open spaces
amounts of water?
o Contain red bone marrow
› Tissue resists compression well
o Internal; inside the bone
› Provides support through flexibility and resilience
o Small needle-like pieces of bone
› Ex: cartilage in movable joints (joints that cause
o Many
pivotal movement)
2. ELASTIC CARTILAGE CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
› Matrix contains many elastic fibers along with 1. LONG BONE
delicate collagen fibrils o Longer than it is wide
› More elastic than hyaline and better tolerates
o Have a shaft with heads at both ends
repeated bending
o Contain mostly compact bone
› Very flexible
o Situated where you can do most movement
› Makes up the external ear and the epiglottis
› Ex: epiglottis (open and closes the airways) o Parts:
  EPIPHYSIS (spongy bones: to resist
impact), sheet with a cartilage
› Ends of the bone
› Composed mostly of spongy
bone
 DIAPHYSIS (compact bone)
› Shaft (middle)
› Composed of compact bone
 MEDUALLARY CANAL/CAVITY –
found yellow marrow
› Cavity of the shaft
› Contains red marrow in infants
 ENDOSTEUM – connective tissue
found inside
 PERIOSTEUM – connective tissue
found outside; fibrous connective tissue
membrane
 Found in legs and arms: femur and
humerus
 SHARPEY’S FIBERS – secure
periosteum to underlying bone
 ARTERIES – supply bone cells with
nutrients
 ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – covers
the external surface of the epiphyses
› Made of hyaline cartilage
› Decreases friction at joint
surfaces
2. SHORT BONE
o Generally cube-shape and small
o Contain mostly spongy bone
o No DIAPHYSIS AND EPIPHYSIS
o Found in wrist, angles and toes: carpals and tarsals
3. FLAT BONE
o Parietal bone of the skull
o Thin and flattened
o Usually curved
o Cover organs/ provide surface for muscle
o Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
spongy bone
o Pelvis, skull, ribs, sternum, ilium
4. IRREGULAR BONE
o Irregularly shaped
o Do not fit into other bone classifications
o Spinal cord, vertebrae, sacrum, hip
BONE MARKINGS
o Surface features of bones
o Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons and ligaments
o Passages for nerves and blood vessels
o Categories of bone markings
› Projections and processes – grow out form the
bone surface
CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON
o In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
o During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by
bone
o Cartilage remains in isolated areas:
› Bridge of the nose
› Parts of the ribs
› Joints
BONE GROWTH
o Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during
childhood
› New cartilage is continuously formed
› Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage
o Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
› Bones change shape somewhat
› Bones grow in width
MEDULLARY CAVITY
o Cavity of the shaft
o Contains yellow marrow (mostly flat) in adults
o Contains red marrow (for blood cells)
BONE TISSUE
 o Extracellular matrix › Protects the brain from injury
› Organic components of bone tissue accounts for o FRONTANELS
35% of the tissue mass › Unossified space or soft spot located between the
› Collagen contributes to the flexibility and tensile cranial bones
strength that allows the bone to resist stretching › Protected by a tissue covering
and twisting › Allows for molding of skull during childbirth and
› Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) accounts for 65% for enlargement of skull as growth occurs
of bone mass › Found in a newborn and infant; closed by age two
 Composed of the fusion of 8 cranial
OSTEOGENIC CELLS bones:
o Osteo – bone  Frontal; 1
o Genic – producing  Parietal; 2
o Bone producing  Temporal; 3
o Stem cells that differentiates to become osteoblasts  Occipital; 1
 Sphenoid; 1
OSTEOBLASTS  Ethmoid; 1
o Osteo – bone  Facial
o Blast – bud, sprout  Nasal
o Cells that actively produce and secrete the organic  Zygoma
components of the bone matrix: ground substance and  Maxilla
collagen fibers, etc.  Mandible
o Bone-forming cells  Palate
 Concha
OSTEOCYTES
 Vomer
o Cyte – cell
 Hyoid
o Keeps the bone healthy
o Cells that make up the bone
o Mature bone cells
EARBONES (OSSICLE)
OSTEOCLASTS
o Smallest bone in the body
o Clast – break
o Break the bone; disintegrate the bone so that the bones that
have been disintegrated will be replaced with new ones
o Derived from a lineage of wbc’s (insert 5th & 6th image)
o Break down the bone by secreting hydrochloric acid,
lysosomal enzymes
RIB CAGE
HEALTHY BONES o Twelve pairs of long slender bones attached to vertebrate
o Creating and destroying bone tissue is an ongoing process
› TRUE RUBS are the first seven pairs are attached
o Destroying old bone tissue and replacing it with new ones directly to the sternum and spine
helps to keep the bone tissue strong and respond to the › FALSE RIBS are the last 5 pairs are attached to
changing stresses the cartilage of rib above or have only anterior
o Only stops when no necessary materials to create new bone; attachment
happens with old age = bone loss › Last 2 pairs of false ribs are referred to as floating
ribs; only attach to vertebrae
NUMBER OF BONES
› Sternum (breast bone) – 1
o 270 bones at birth
o 206 at adulthood because bones fuse together during growth
o Difference between number at birth and adulthood due to
fusion of bones (insert 7th image)

DIVISION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

o AXIAL JOINTS
 Framework of the body o A place where any two or more bony parts join together; also
 Skull, spinal column, rib cage called an ARTICULATION
o APPENDICULAR o Help together by bands of connective tissues called
 Appendages ligaments
 Arms, legs, shoulders, pelvis, feet, hands o More joints than bone in the body
SKULL
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
o CRANIUM
1. DIATHROSIS
 ›Movable TYPES OF FRACTURES
›Knee, elbow, action of a hinge 1. GREENSTICK
›Shoulder or hip, which actions like that of a ball o Bone cracks but does not break, common in
and socket children
› Contain: 2. SIMPLE OR CLOSED
 Articular cartilage o Complete break, does not break the skin
 Bursa, sack-like capsules filled with 3. COMPOOUND OR OPEN
cushioning o Complete break, bone protrudes through the skin
 Synoval cavity and membrane 4. IMPACTED
2. AMPHIARTHROSIS/CARTILAGINOUS o Broken ends are jammed into each other
› Party movable/limited mobility 5. COMMINUTED
› Vertebrae o More than one fracture, bone fragments
3. SYNARTHROSIS 6. DEPRESSED
› Immovable o Broken pieces of skull driven inwards
› Cranial
7. SPIRAL
› Fibrous o Break winds around bone, common in sports
TYPES OF JOINTS accidents
1. GLIDING JOINTS 8. COLLES
o Found at the end of clavicles, between carpals and o Fracture of distal end of radius and or ulna
tarsals – slight movement 9. DISLOCATION
2. HINGE JOINTS o Two bones slip out of place at the joint that
o Angular movement in a single plane – knee and connects them
elbow
REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURE
3. PIVOT JOINT
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
o Permit movement only
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
4. BALL AND SOCKET
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
o Allows rotation
 Bone callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

(insert 8th image)

DIAGNOSTIC EXAMINATIONS
ANTHROSCOPY

› Visual inspection of a joint with an endoscope

COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT SCAN)

› X-ray which allows three dimensional views

› Makes use of radiation

(insert 9th , 10th & 11th image)

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)
TREATMENT
› Uses strong magnets and radio waves to construct a three
dimensional image  Immobilization of the affected part
› No radiation is used  Prevention of shock
› Soft tissues seen in more detail  Elevate
› More expensive  Cold or ice pack
› Patients put in tube: obesity or claustrophobia could be a  Reducing the fracture
problem for some patients  Open reduction

ARTHRITIS
X-RAYS  Joint inflammation
› Image produced by ionizing radiation HERNIATED DISC
 Rupture disk
 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Vertebra separated by intervertebral discs. The spine has a normal
curvature with each vertebra given a name according to its location
 ♦ Pelvic girdle

THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE

♦ Composed of two bones
 CLAVICLE – collar bone
 SCAPULA – shoulder bone
♦ These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free
movement

THE BONY THORAX

♦ Forms a cage to protect major organs
♦ Made-up of three parts:
 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic vertebrae

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB

♦ The arm is formed by a single bone
 HUMERUS

THE APPENDICULAR SYSTEM

♦ Limbs (appendages)
♦ Pectoral girdle
♦ The forearm has two bones
♦ The hand
 ULNA
 CARPALS – wrist
 RADIUS
 METACARPALS – palm
 PHALANGES – fingers
BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
♦ Hip bones
♦ Composed of three pairs of fused bones
 ILIUM
 ISCHIUM
 PUBIC BONE
♦ The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
♦ Protects several organs
 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
 URINARY BLADDER
 PART OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

♦ The leg has two bones

 TIBIA
 FIBULA

BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS

♦ The thigh has one bone
 FEMUR – thigh bone

♦ The foot
 TALUS – ankle
  METATARSALS
 PHALANGES

JOINTS
♦ Articulation of bones
♦ Functions of joints
 Holds bones together
 Allow for mobility
♦ Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

1. SYNARTHROSIS – immovable joints
2. AMPHIARTHROSES – slightly moveable joints
3. DIARTHROSIS – freely moveable joints

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

1. FIBROUS JOINTS
 Generally immovable
 Bones united by a fibrous tissue –
SYNARTHROSIS or largely immoveable

2. CARTILAGE JOINTS
 Immovable or slightly moveable
 Bones connected by cartilage
 E.g. pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
3. SYNOCIAL JOINTS
 Freely moveable
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

FEATURES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS – DIARTHROSIS

♦ Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of
bones
♦ Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
♦ Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
♦ Ligaments reinforce the joint INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
JOINTS
STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SYNOVIAL ♦ BURSITIS – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a
JOINT blow or friction
♦ BURSAE – flattened fibrous sacs ♦ TENDONITIS – inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Lined with synovial membranes ♦ ARTHRITIS – inflammatory or degenerative disease of
 Filled with synovial fluid joints
 Not actually part of the joint  Over 100 different types
♦ TENDON SHEATH
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
  The most widespread crippling disease in the
united states

CLINICAL FORMS OF ARTHRITIS

♦ OSTEOARTHRITIS
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging process
♦ RHEUMATOID
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system
attacks the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints
 Often leads to deformities