Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial BAHAN AJAR DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS P MAT 2022

KEMENTERIAN RISET, TEKNOLOGI DAN PENDIDIKAN TINGGI
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG (UNNES)

Kantor: Rektorat UNNES Kampus Sekaran, Gunungpati, Semarang 50229
Rektor: (024)8508081 Fax (024)8508082, Warek I: (024) 8508001
Website: www.unnes.ac.id - E-mail: rektor@mail.unnes.ac.id
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
No. Dokumen No. Revisi Hal Tanggal Terbit
FM-01-AKD-07 02 1dari 6 17 Februari 2017
HAND OUT
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Subject Code: 20P00528
3 Credits
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG
2022
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
HANDOUT VERIFICATION
On the day, the sixteenth of August two thousand and twenty two, hand out of
Differential Calculus for Mathematics Education study program, Faculty of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences has been verified by the Chairman of the Mathematics Education
study program.
Semarang, 16 August 2022

Chairman of Mathematics Lecturer
Education Study Program
Dr. Mulyono, M.Si. Dr. Kristina Wijayanti, M.S.

NIP. 197009021997021001 NIP. 196012171986012001
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
PREFACE
This handout is intended as a beginning handbook for students in Mathematics

Education study program of semester 1. The handout usage is expected to assist the
students in learning differential calculus especially limits and derivative and its
application. Students are suggested to do the exercises in this handout to get well
understanding of the material.
Thank to all those who have helped and encouraged the writing of this hand
out.
Author
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT
Graduate Learning Outcome
1. Be devoted to God Almighty and be able to demonstrate religious attitudes.
2. Mastering the mathematics concepts and methods of mathematical science.
3. Applying logical, critical, systematic, and innovative thinking in the context of
development or implementation of science and technology that pay attention and
apply the value of humanities in accordance with their area of expertise.
Course Learning Outcomes

Understanding and mastering the basic concepts of Calculus, regarding the
number system, functions, limit function, the function of one variable derivatives, the limit
at infinity and infinite limits and able to apply functions derived through mathematical
modeling.
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
CONTENTS
COVER i
HAND OUT VERIFICATION ii
PREFACE iii
LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT iv
CONTENTS v
CHAPTER I PRE CALCULUS CONCEPTS

A. Course Description 1
B. Course Learning Outcomes 1
C. Content of the Course
1.1. The Real Number System 1
1.2. The Coordinate Plane, Distance, and Circle 3
1.3. Linear equation 3
1.4. Functions 4
1.5. Trigonometric function 5
D. Questions 5
CHAPTER II LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

2.1. Tangent and Limits 6
2.2. Limits of Functions 8
2.3. Properties of Limits 12
2.4. One Sided Limit 16
2.5. Continuity 18
D. Questions 25
CHAPTER III DERIVATIVES

3.1. The Derivative as a Function 27
3.2. Rule for Calculating Derivatives 32
3.3. Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions 37
3.4. Derivatives of Velocity 38
3.5. Higher Order Derivatives 39
3.6. The Chain Rule 42
3.7. Implicit Differentiation and Rational Power Functions 46
D. Questions 52
CHAPTER IV APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVES

4.1. Extreme Values and The Mean Values Theorem 56
FORMULIR MUTU
BAHAN AJAR/DIKTAT
4.2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions 63

4.3. Relative Extrema 66
4.4. Significant of the Second Derivative Concavity 70
4.5. Curve Sketching I : Asymptotes 73
4.6. Curve Sketching Il : Summary of Techniques 78
4.7. Extrema on Closed Bounded Intervals: Max-Min Problems 82
D. Question 93
References 95
CHAPTER 1
PRE-CALCULUS CONCEPTS
A. Course Description
In this section we review about the real number systems, The Coordinate Plane,
Distance, and Circle, Linear equation, Functions, Trigonometric functions.
B. Course Learning Outcome
1. Understanding the concept of real number systems and their properties.
2. Understanding the concept of functions and their properties.
1.1. The Real Number System
The real numbers may be represented by the set of all points lying on an infinite line. We
first select a point 0 on the line that we refer to as the origin. Each positive real number lies
to the right of 0 and each negative real number lies to the left of 0.
There are three important special types of real numbers that can be identified by their
decimal forms that are integers (only zeros to the right of the decimal point), rational
numbers (the decimal forms of rational numbers repeat eventually), and irrational numbers
(the decimal forms of irrational numbers do not repeat).
The most familiar notation is set builder notation. For example, {x │ a≤ x ≤b } is read, “the
set of all real numbers equal to or greater than a and equal to or less than b.”
We will frequently refer to intervals of the real number line with the following notation:
[ a , b] = {x │ a≤ x ≤ b}, it is called a closed interval
[ a , b) = {x │ a≤ x < b}, it is called a half closed (or a half open) interval
( a , b] = {x │ a <x ≤ b}, it is called a half closed (or a half open) interval
( a , b) = {x │ a <x < b}, it is called an open interval
We can denote intervals that extend infinitely in one direction by use of the infinity symbol,
∞, as follows :
[a , ∞) = {x │ a≤ x }, it is called a closed interval
(a , ∞) = {x │ a< x }, it is called an open interval
(-∞, b) = {x │x < b}, it is called an open interval
(-∞, b] = {x │x ≤ b}, it is called a closed interval
(-∞,∞ ) is the entire real number line.
It must be understood that ∞ is not a number, it is shorthand for the phrase “continuing
infinitely through positive values” (or negative value for -∞).
1
In sketching intervals, we use a solid dot to indicate an endpoint that is included and a
hollow dot to indicate an endpoint that is excluded.
If x is a number and A is a set of numbers (not necessarily an interval), “x ∈ A“ read “ x is
an element of set A”
If A and B are sets, we say that A is a subset of B if every element of A is an element of B.
Notation : A ⊆ B.
Empty set is a set with no elements. Notation : ∅.
There are some operations on sets, for examples union, intersection.
The union of two sets A and B is the set containing precisely those elements which are
elements of either set A or set B, or both.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set containing precisely those elements which
are elements of both set A and set B.
Definition
The inequality a < b means b - a is positive.
The inequality a ≤ b means a = b or a < b.
Theorem
Let x, y, z, and c be real numbers. Then
(i) Exactly one of the following holds : x = y, x < y, or x > y. (trichotomy)
(ii) If x < y and y < z, then x < z. (transitivity)
(iii) If x < y then x + c < y + c.
(iv) If x < y, c > 0 then x c < y c.
(v) If x < y, c < 0 then x c > y c.
Properties (iii) – (v) are frequently used in “solving” inequalities, that is, finding the numbers
for which the inequalities are true statements.
Property (iii) says that one can add a number to both sides of an inequality without
changing the sense of the inequality.
Properties (iv) and (v) show that in multiplying both sides of inequality by c, the sense of
inequality will be retained if c > 0 and reversed if c < 0.
Definition
𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
│x│ = {
−𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
The absolute value of real numbers is always nonnegative.
2
Theorem
Let a be a positive number. The inequality │x│< a is equivalent to the double inequality –a
< x <a.
Definition
The distance between the numbers a and b is the number │b - a│
Theorem
For any real numbers x and y
(i) │x│ ≥ 0
(ii) │x│ = │-x│
(iii) │xy│ = │x││y│
𝑥 |𝑥|
(iv) |𝑦| = |𝑦| for y ≠ 0.
(v) c > 0, │x│≥ c ⟺ x ≤ c or x ≥ c

(vi) -│x│ ≤ x ≤ │x│
(vii) │x + y│≤ │x│ + │y│ (triangle inequality)
Theorem
(i) ││x│ - │y││ ≤ │x - y│
(ii) ││x│ - │y││ ≤ │x + y│
1.2. The Coordinate Plane, Distance, and Circle

The distance between the points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) in the XY-plane is the non-
negative number d(P,Q) = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .
Geometrically, a circle may be defined as the set of all points lying at a fixed distance (the
radius) from a fixed point (the center).
The circle with center (x0 , y0 ) and radius r has equation (x - x0) 2+ (y - y0)2 = r2.
1.3. Linear Equations

If P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) are two distinct points on a non-vertical line l, the slope of l is
𝑦 −𝑦
defined by the ratio m = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , x2 ≠ x1.
2 1
For slope is not defined if x2 = x1. For this reason, we say that a vertical line has no slope.
Suppose l is a line with slope m which contains the point (x1 , y1 ). To find an equation for l
𝑦 − 𝑦1
we let P(x , y ) be an arbitrary point on l. Then, we obtain m = 𝑥 − 𝑥1
So
3
y – y1 = m(x – x1) point-slope equation
or
y = mx + b where b = y1 – mx1. Slope-intercept equation
The graph of the equation y = mx + b is a line with slope m and y-intercept b.
Conversely, the line with slope m and y-intercept b has this equation.
A vertical line has no slope and equation x = a.
A horizontal line has slope zero, and equation y = b.
Two lines has slope m1 and m2 are (i) parallel if m1 = m2 , (ii) perpendicular if
m1 m2 = -1.
1.4. Functions
A function from set A to set B is a rule that assigns to each element x ∈ A a unique element
y ∈ B. We write y = f(x) to indicate that the element y is the value assigned by the function f
to the element x. The set A is called the domain of the function f.
The set of all values {f(x) │ x ∈ A} is called the range of the function.
The graph of the function f is the set of all points (x, y) satisfying the equation y = f(x).
The graph of the function f is the graph of the equation y = f(x).
The graph of every quadratic function f(x) = Ax2 + B x + C is a parabola.
A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
f(x) = an xn + an-1 x n-1+ … + a1 x + a0
where an , an-1 , … , a1 , a0 are constants and n is a positive integer.
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions. A rational function is not
defined for numbers x for which its denominator equals zero.
Absolute value function has of the form f(x) = |𝑥|.
Definition
𝑓
Given the functions f and g and the number c, the functions f + g, f –g, c f, f g, and 𝑔 are
defined by the following equations:

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
(f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
(c f)(x) = c f(x)
(f g)(x) = f(x)g(x)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑔)(x) = 𝑔(𝑥) (provided g(x) ≠ 0).
4
Definition
Given the functions f and g, the composite function f∘g is the result of the function f acting
on values of the function g. That is (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x).
The domain of the composite function f∘g is the set of all x in the domain of g for which the
number u = g(x) lies in the domain of f.
1.5. Trigonometric Function

Radian measure is defined by the equation 2𝜋 radian = 3600. If P(x, y) is a point on the unit
circle and 𝜃 is the angle formed between the radius through P and the positive x-axis, then
sin 𝜃 = y and cos 𝜃 = x.
sin 𝜃 𝑦 cos 𝜃 𝑥 1 1 1 1
Also tan 𝜃 = = ; cotan 𝜃 = = ; sec𝜃 = = ; cosec 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑦 cos 𝜃 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑦
The functions sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, sec 𝜃, cosec 𝜃 are periodic with period 2𝜋.
The function tan 𝜃 and cotan 𝜃 are periodic with period 𝜋.
D. Question
Find the solution of inequalities below!
1. │x - 2│ = x
2. │x - 2│ < x
3. │x - 2│ ≤ x
5
CHAPTER 2
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
In this section we discuss about limit, one sided limit, continuity and their properties.
1. Understanding the concept of limit and their properties.
2. Understanding the concept of one sided limit.
3. Understanding the concept of continuity.
2.1. Tangents and Limits
Definition
Let P and Q be points on a curve C. The line tangent to the curve C at the point P, if it
exists , is the limiting position of the secant line through

P and Q as Q approaches P along the curve C from either direction.
We can now determine how to define the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a
function f at a point P, if it exists, in a way that is consistent with our notion of a tangent to
a curve. First, we let x0 be the x-coordinate of P. Then P has coordinates (x0, f(x0)) since P
is on the graph of f. To find a second point Q on the graph of f we choose any number h ≠
0 (positive or negative) and let Q (x0 + h, f(x0 + h)).
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥0 )
Then slope of secant through P and Q = ℎ
(1)
If the graph of f connects the points P and Q in an unbroken arc as the number h
approaches zero the point Q will approach P along the graph of f. Then the tangent to the
6
graph of f at P is the “limiting position” of the secant through P and Q as h approaches
zero.
Thus, the slope of the tangent should be the “limiting value” of the slope of this secant as h
approaches zero:
Slope of the tangent at P = limiting value of the slope of the secant as h approaches zero
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= limit as h approaches zero of (2)
ℎ
Using equations (1) and (2) we formally define the slope of the line tangent to the graph of
a function at a point as follows.
Definition
The slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function f at the point (x0, f(x0)), if it exists,
is the number
𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥0 )
m = lim ℎ
(3)
ℎ→0
Example
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f(x) = x2 at the point (2, 4).
Solution
Here x0 = 2 and f(x) = x2, so f(x0 + h) = f(2 + h) = (2+h)2 = 4 + 4h + h2 and
f(x0) = f(2) = 22 = 4.
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (4+4ℎ+ℎ 2 )−4 4ℎ+ ℎ2 ℎ(4+ℎ)
Thus, ℎ
= ℎ
= ℎ
= ℎ
= 4+ℎ (ℎ ≠ 0)
The slope of tangent is therefore m = lim 4 + ℎ = 4.

ℎ→0
7
Example
Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of f(x) = x3 +3x – 2 at the point
(1, 2).
Solution
We begin by finding the slope of the tangent at (1, 2), as in Example 1.
With x0 = 1 we have f(1) = 13 + 3.1 – 2 = 2
And f(1+h) = (1+h)3 + 3(1+h) – 2
= (1 + 3h + 3h2 + h3) + (3 + 3h) – 2
= h3 + 3h2 + 6h + 2.
The slope of the secant through (1, 2) and (1+h, f(1+h)) is therefore
𝑓(1+ ℎ)− 𝑓(1) (ℎ 3 + 3ℎ2 + 6ℎ+2)− 2 (ℎ 3 + 3ℎ2 + 6ℎ )
= = = ℎ2 + 3ℎ + 6 when h ≠ 0.
ℎ ℎ ℎ
The slope of the tangent at (1, 2) is therefore m = lim (ℎ2 + 3ℎ + 6) = 6.

ℎ→0
An equation for the tangent, which has slope m = 6 and passes through the point (1, 2), is
y - 2 = 6(x-1)
2.2. Limits of Functions

Intuitively, the statement
L = lim 𝑓(𝑥) (read “The number L is the limit of the function f as x approaches a”)
𝑥→𝑎
means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by choosing x sufficiently

close to a.
8
As the number x is chosen close to the number a, the value f(x) is close to the number L.
Note that the number x = a is not assumed to belong to the domain of f.
This emphasizes the fact that lim 𝑓(𝑥) is determined by the behavior of f for x near a but
𝑥→𝑎
not by the number f(a) itself. Indeed, f(a) need not even exist for lim 𝑓(𝑥) to be defined.
𝑥→𝑎
Example
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
The function f(x) = 𝑥
is undefined for x = 0. However, the limit lim will be important
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥
in our work on trigonometric functions.

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Even though 𝑥
is undefined for x = 0, the value 𝑥
is found very close to the number L
= 1.
sin 𝑥
Later we shall prove that lim 𝑥
= 1.
𝑥→𝑎
Example
(𝑥+1)3 − 1
Find lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
Solution
Here the function f(x) is undefined if x = 0.
Experimenting with a calculator, however, as x is chosen close to 0 the value f(x) is close
to L = 3.
For linear functions, the relationship between 𝛿 and ε in Definition of limit function is
determined by the slope of the graph of function.
This is because the slope determines the rate at which f(x) changes as x changes.
We defined the limit of a function informally by saying that L = lim f( 𝑥) means that we can
𝑥→𝑎
cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by choosing x sufficiently close to a.

Definition
Let f(x) be defined for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly at a. We say
that the number L is the limit of the function f as x approaches a, written L = lim f( 𝑥) , if
𝑥→𝑎
and only if, given any number ε > 0 there exists a correspond number δ> 0 so that
if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < δ then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 < ε.
In other words, L = lim f( 𝑥) means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired
𝑥→𝑎
by choosing x sufficiently close to a.
9
Example
Prove that lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 7!
𝑥→3
Solution
In this case we have f(x) = 2x + 1, L = 7, a = 3.
Thus if ε > 0 is given, the following inequalities are equivalent
|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < ε
↔ |(2𝑥 + 1) − 7| < ε
↔ |2𝑥 − 6| < ε
↔ 2 |𝑥 − 3| < ε
𝜀
↔ |𝑥 − 3| <
2
Formal proof
𝜀
Given ε > 0. Choose δ = .
2
It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < δ then |(2𝑥 + 1) − 7| < ε.

This proves that lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 7.
𝑥→3
Example
Prove that lim (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5) = -4!
𝑥→3
Solution
In this case we have f(x) = x2 – 6x + 5, L = -4, a = 3.
Thus if ε > 0 is given, the following inequalities are equivalent
|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < ε
↔ |(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5) − (−4)| < ε
↔ |𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9| < ε
↔ |(𝑥 − 3)2 | < ε
↔ |𝑥 − 3| < √𝜀
Formal proof
Given ε > 0. Choose δ = √𝜀 .
It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < δ then |(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5) − (−4)| < ε.
This proves that lim (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5) = -4.
𝑥→3
10
Example
𝜋
|sin(𝑥)| = AP ≤ BP ≤ arc BP = |𝑥| , |𝑥| <
2
|sin(𝑥)| ≤ |𝑥| -∞ < x< ∞

We may use this inequality to prove that lim sin 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→0
Proof
Let ε > 0 be given. Choose δ =ε.
If |𝑥| < δ = ε then |sin(𝑥) − 0| = |sin(𝑥)| ≤ |𝑥| < δ = ε.
Thus if 0 < |𝑥| < δ then |sin(𝑥) − 0| < ε.
Therefore lim sin 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 |𝑥|
We use the definition of absolute value |𝑥| = { to rewrite the function 𝑥 as
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
|𝑥| 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
={ .
𝑥 −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
This shows that when x is close to zero and positive, all values of the function
|𝑥|
f(x) = 𝑥
are f(x) = 1. But when x is close to zero and negative, values of the function f are
f(x) = -1.
For the limit to exist, values of f must lie close to a single number L when x is chosen close
to 0 on either side.
11
Since values of f are always 1 or -1, depending only on the sign of x, the limit does not
exist.
2.3. Properties of Limits
Theorem
1. If a c are elements in ℝ then lim 𝑐 = c.
𝑥→𝑎
2. If a is an element in ℝ then lim 𝑥 = a.

𝑥→𝑎
Proof
1. Suppose f(x) = c.
It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < δ then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐| = |𝑐 − 𝑐| = 0 < ε.
This proves that lim 𝑐 = c.
𝑥→𝑎
2. Suppose f(x) = x.
It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < δ then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑎| = |𝑥 − 𝑎| = 0 < ε.
This proves that lim 𝑥 = a.
𝑥→𝑎
Theorem
If a and b are elements in ℝ then |𝑎 − 𝑏| < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0 if and only if a = b.
Proof
(⟹) Assume |𝑎 − 𝑏| < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Suppose a ≠ b. This means a – b ≠ 0. Thus |𝑎 − 𝑏| > 0 and hence there exists εo > 0 such
that |𝑎 − 𝑏| = εo.
Choose ε1 = ½ εo.
Then |𝑎 − 𝑏| = εo > ε1. This contradicts with |𝑎 − 𝑏| < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Thus a = b
(⟸)Assume that a = b.
Obvious that |𝑎 − 𝑏| = 0 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Thus |𝑎 − 𝑏| < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0 if and only if a = b.
Theorem
Assume that lim f( 𝑥) = L and lim f( 𝑥) = M both exists. Then L = M.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Proof
Take any 𝜀 > 0.
12
𝜀
Since lim f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1 then |𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿|< .
𝑥→𝑎 2
𝜀
Since lim f( 𝑥) = M then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0< |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ2 then |𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑀|< .
𝑥→𝑎 2
Choose δ = min { δ1 , δ2 }.
It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |𝐿 − 𝑀| = |𝐿 − 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀|
≤ |𝐿 − 𝑓(𝑥)| + |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀|
𝜀 𝜀
< 2 + 2 = ε.
Thus |𝐿 − 𝑀| < ε , ∀𝜀 > 0. Therefore L = M.
Theorem
Assume that lim f( 𝑥) = L and lim g( 𝑥) = M both exists.
Let c be any number.

Then each of the following limits exists
1. lim (f( 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = L + M
𝑥→𝑎
2. lim cf( 𝑥) = cL
𝑥→𝑎
3. lim f( 𝑥)g(x) = LM
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
4. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, provided M ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎
Proof
1. Take any 𝜀 > 0.
𝜀
Since lim f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1 then |𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿|< 2.
𝑥→𝑎
Since lim g( 𝑥)= M then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ2 then
𝑥→𝑎
𝜀
|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|< .
2
Choose δ = min { δ1 , δ2 }.It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then

|(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| = |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 + 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|
≤ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿|+|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|
𝜀 𝜀
<2+2=ε
So, if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| < ε.

Therefore lim (f( 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = L + M.
𝑥→𝑎
2. Let ε > 0 be given.

𝜀
Since lim f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0< |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1 then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿|< |𝑐|.
𝑥→𝑎
13
Choose δ = δ1.
𝜀
It follows that if 0< |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |𝑐𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐𝐿| = │c│|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < │c│ |𝑐| = ε.
Hence 0< |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |𝑐𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐𝐿| < ε.

Thus lim cf( 𝑥) = cL.
𝑥→𝑎
3. Take any ε > 0.

Since lim f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1 then |𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿|< 1.
𝑥→𝑎
Thus │f(x)│ < │L│ + 1 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1

Since lim f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ2 then
𝑥→𝑎
𝜀
|𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿|< .
2(|𝑀|+1)
𝑥→𝑎
𝜀
|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|< .
2(|𝐿|)+1
Choose δ = min{ δ1, δ2, δ3 }

It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then
|(𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)) − (𝐿𝑀)| = |(𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑀 + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑀 − (𝐿𝑀)|
≤ |(𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑀| + |𝑓(𝑥)𝑀 − (𝐿𝑀)|
= │ f(x)│ │g(x) - M│ + │M│ │f(x) - L│
𝜀 𝜀
< (│L│+1)( ) + │M│ ( )
2(|𝐿|)+1 2(|𝑀|+1)
𝜀 𝜀
<2+ 2
=ε
Thus lim f( 𝑥)g(x) = LM

𝑥→𝑎
1 1
4. We first show that lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 , M ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
|𝑀|
|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|< .
2
𝑀
Obvious that 2
> |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀| ≥ ││g(x)│ - │M││.
𝑀
So │g(x) │ > │ 2 │ whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ1.
1 2
Consequently, |𝑔(𝑥)| < |𝑀| whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ1.
Let ε > 0 be given.
14
𝑥→𝑎
|𝑀|2 𝜀
|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀|<
2
. Choose δ = min { δ1, δ2}.
1 1 1
It follows that if 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ then |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀
| = |𝑀)||𝑔(𝑥| │M – g(x)│
1 2 |𝑀|2 𝜀
< |𝑀| |𝑀| 2
= ε.
1 1
Thus, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀
.
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 1 1 1 𝐿
Then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = L 𝑀 = 𝑀.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Theorem
1. lim x n = 𝑎𝑛
𝑥→𝑎
2. lim f(x)n = (lim f(x))n = 𝐿𝑛

Proof
Exercise
Theorem
Let m and n be positive integers. Then
n 𝑛
1. If m is even, lim x m = 𝑎𝑚 , for 0 < a <∞.
𝑥→𝑎
n 𝑛
2. If m is odd, lim x m = 𝑎𝑚 , for -∞ < a <∞.
𝑥→𝑎
Proof
Exercise
The Pinching Theorem

Assume that lim g( 𝑥) and lim h( 𝑥) exist and that lim g( 𝑥) = L = lim h( 𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
If the function f satisfy the inequality g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval containing
a (except possibly at x = a), then lim f( 𝑥) = L also.
𝑥→𝑎
Proof
Given any ε > 0.
Since lim g( 𝑥) = L then there exist a number δ1 > 0 so that – ε < g(x) – L < ε or
𝑥→𝑎
L – ε < g(x) < ε + L whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ1.
15
Similarly, since lim h( 𝑥) = L then there exist a number δ2 > 0 so that
𝑥→𝑎
– ε < h(x) – L < ε or L – ε < h(x) < ε + L whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ2.

Choose δ = min { δ1, δ2}.
Since g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x), we may conclude that L – ε < g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x) < ε + L whenever
0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ. This show that │f(x) - L│ < ε whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ.
Thus lim f( 𝑥) = L.
𝑥→𝑎
2.4. One Sided Limit

We have defined the statement L = lim 𝑓(𝑥) to mean that │f(x) – L│ is small whenever
𝑥→𝑎
│x-a│ is small (and nonzero) regardless of whether x lies to the right of a or to the left.
Because of this “two sided” property of limits, we say that lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist for the
𝑥→𝑎
function f whose graph is shown in figure below.
This graph, however, has the property that as x is chosen close to a on the right, the
corresponding function value f(x) are found close to the number L. This is the concept of the
right hand limit, written lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = L.
𝑥→𝑎
Similarly, we write lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = M to mean that values f(x) are close to M when x is close to a on
𝑥→𝑎
the left.
Intuitively, the statement lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = L means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as
𝑥→𝑎
desired by choosing x on the right side of a and sufficiently close to a.

Similarly, the statement lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = M means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to M as
𝑥→𝑎
desired by choosing x on the left side of a and sufficiently close to a.
16
Example
Because the square root function f(x) = √𝑥 is not defined for x < 0, lim √𝑥 does not exist. We
𝑥→0
may write, however, that lim √𝑥 = 0.

𝑥→0
Example
|𝑥| |𝑥|
For x > 0, lim+ 𝑥
= lim+ 1 = 1, and for x < 0, lim− 𝑥
= lim− −1 = -1.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Example
Although lim ⟦𝑥⟧ fails to exist for each integer n, the corresponding one-sided limits do exist. In
𝑥→n
particular, lim+⟦𝑥⟧ = 2 ; lim−⟦𝑥⟧ = 1.

𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim ⟦𝑥⟧ = -3; lim −⟦𝑥⟧ = -2.

𝑥→−2+ 𝑥→−2
Definition
We say that L is the limit of the function f as approaches a from the right, written
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L if and only if for every ε> 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 so that if
𝑥→𝑎 +
a < x < a + δ then │f(x) - L│ < ε.

We say that M is the limit of the function f as approaches a from the left, written
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L if and only if for every ε> 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 so that if
𝑥→𝑎 −
a – δ < x < a then │f(x) - M│< ε.
Prove that lim+ √𝑥 = 0!

𝑥→0
Solution
│f(x) - L│= │√𝑥 -0│ = │√𝑥 │< ε ⟺ √𝑥< ε ⟺ 0 < x < 𝜀 2
Take any ε > 0. Choose δ = 𝜀 2 .
Then, if 0 < x < δ then │f(x) - L│= │√𝑥 -0│ = │√𝑥 │< ε. Thus lim √𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→0+
Theorem
The limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists if and only if both lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are equal. That is
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L if and only if both lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = L = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example
4𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 ≥ 1
For the function f(x) = { prove that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1!
2 − 𝑥2, 𝑥 < 1 𝑥→1
17
Solution
If x ≥ 1 then f(x) = 4x – 3. Thus lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 4𝑥 − 3 = 1.
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
If x < 1 then f(x) = 2- x2. Thus lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 2 − 𝑥 2 = 1.

𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Therefore lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1

𝑥→1
2.5. Continuity
In defining the limit L = lim 𝑓(𝑥) we have repeatedly emphasized that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and f(a) need
not be equal. (Indeed, f(a) may not even be defined). We now turn our attention to the case in
which f(a) = lim 𝑓(𝑥). When this happens we say that f is continuous at x = a.
𝑥→𝑎
Definition
The function f is said to be continuous at x = a if f is defined on an open interval containing a
and f(a) = lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎
It is important to note that the definition of continuity requires both that the limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑥→𝑎
that the function f is defined at x = a, in order that the condition lim 𝑓(𝑥) = f(a) be fulfilled.
𝑥→𝑎
If f is not continuous at x = a we say that f is discontinuous at x = a.

Geometrically, continuity is a property that assures that the graph of f will not have a hole or
otherwise be “broken” at (a, f(a)).
Example
𝑥2− 4
Find the numbers x at which f(x) = 𝑥−2
is continuous.
18
Solution
Since x – 2 =0 when x = 2, the value f(2) is not defined. The function is therefore discontinuous
at x = 2. For all numbers a ≠ 2 we have
𝑥2− 4
. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−2
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
= lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−2
= lim (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→𝑎
= a+2
= f(a).
Thus, f is continuous for all x ≠ 2.
The discontinuity is called a removable discontinuity since we can remove the discontinuity at x
= 2 by defining f(2) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4.
𝑥→2
In other words, we add = 2 to the domain of f by defining the new function

𝑥 2 −4
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2
.𝑓̂ (x) = { 𝑥−2
4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
The function 𝑓̂ is then continuous for all x, and agrees with f for x ≠ 2.
Theorem
If the functions f and g are continuous at x = a and if c is any real number, then the following
functions are also continuous at x = a:
(i) f+g
(ii) c f
(iii) f g
𝑓
(iv) 𝑔
, provided g(a) ≠ 0.
Proof
To prove that f + g in (i) is continuous at x = a, we note first that (f + g)(a) = f(a) + g(a) is
defined, since both f and g are continuous at x = a.
Moreover, lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exist, and
. lim (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] (Definition of f +g)

= lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) (Theorem)

= f(a) + g(a) (Continuity of f, g at a)

= (f + g)(a) (Definition of f + g).
19
Thus f + g satisfies the definition of continuity at x = a.
To prove that c f in (ii) is continuous at x = a, we note first that (c f) (a) = c f(a) is defined, since
f is continuous at x = a.
Moreover, lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist, and
𝑥→𝑎
lim (𝑐𝑓)(𝑥) = lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] (Definition of f +g)

= c lim 𝑓(𝑥)] (Theorem)

𝑥→𝑎
= c f(a) (Continuity of f at a)
= (c f)(a) (Definition of c f )
Thus c f satisfies the definition of continuity at x = a.
To prove that f g in (iii) is continuous at x = a, we note first that (f g)(a) = f(a)g(a) is defined,
since both f and g are continuous at x = a.
. lim (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] (Definition of f g)

=[ lim 𝑓(𝑥) ] [ lim 𝑔(𝑥)] (Theorem)

= f(a) g(a) (Continuity of f, g at a)

= (f g)(a) (Definition of f g).
Thus f g satisfies the definition of continuity at x = a.
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓(𝑎)
To prove that in (iv) is continuous at x = a, we note first that ( )(a) = is defined, since both
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔(𝑎)
f and g are continuous at x = a.

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓
. lim (𝑔)(𝑥) = lim [𝑔(𝑥)] (Definition of 𝑔)
limx→a f(x)
= (Theorem)
limx→a g(x)
𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑔(𝑎) (Continuity of f, g at a)
𝑓 𝑓
= 𝑔 (𝑎) (Definition of 𝑔).
𝑓
Thus 𝑔 satisfies the definition of continuity at x = a.
Theorem
20
For each positive integer n = 1, 2, …
(i) The function f(x) = xn is continuous at all numbers x.
(ii) If the function g is continuous at x = a, the function f(x) = (g(x))n is continuous at x = a.
Proof
(exercise)
The two theorems above combine to show that any polynomial is continuous at all numbers x,
and any rational function is continuous wherever its denominator is not zero.
In particular
(1) The polynomial f(x) = x3 – 2x2 = 7 is continuous at all x.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥+ 7
(2) The rational function f(x) = 𝑥−6
is continuous at all x with x ≠ 6.
𝑥 3 +𝑥+7 4
(3) The power function g(x) = ( ) is continuous at all x with x ≠ 6.
𝑥−6
The following definition concerns continuity on an interval.
Definition
(i) The function f is said to be continuous on the open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at each
x∈ (a, b).
(ii) The function f is said to be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous at each
x∈ (a, b) and, in addition, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = f(a) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = f(b).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑏
Continuity is defined in a similar way on the half open intervals, like (a, b], and on infinite
intervals, like [a, ∞), by including the condition that the one sided limit “from the inside” equals
the function value at any included endpoint.
Example
The function f(x) = √𝑥 is continuous on the interval [0, ∞).
This is because lim √𝑥 = √𝑎 for any a ∈ (0, ∞) and lim+ √𝑥 = 0 = f(0) at the included endpoint.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0
Example
The greatest integer function f(x) = ⟦𝑥⟧ is continuous on each interval of the form [n , n+1) when
n is an integer.
21
This is because limx→a⟦x⟧ = n = f(n)
This function is discontinuous at each integer x = n. This is because lim ⟦x⟧ exist for every
x→a+
integer n, but limx→a⟦x⟧ does not.
Theorem
𝑛
Let n and m be positive integers. The function f(x) = 𝑥 𝑚 is
(i) Continuous on [0, ∞) if m is even
(ii) Continuous on (-∞, ∞) if m is odd.
Proof
𝑛 𝑛
(i) For m even, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 = f(a) if 0 < a < ∞.
𝑛
Thus, f is continuous on (0, ∞). At a = 0, the fact that lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 𝑚 = 0 = f(0) follows by
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
the same method of proof used to show lim+ √𝑥 = 0.

𝑥→0
𝑛 𝑛
(ii) If m is odd, the Theorem before guarantees that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 = f(a) for all
numbers a.
Example
The following functions are continuous on the intervals stated.
(a) f(x) = x2 – 3 √𝑥 on [0, ∞)
2
𝑥2− 𝑥3
(b) f(x) = 1−𝑥
on (-∞, 1) and (1, ∞)
2 3
6𝑥 3 − 5 𝑥 2
(c) f(x) = 𝑥(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
0n (0, 2) and (2, ∞)
Theorem
Let the function f be defined on an open interval containing x = a. Then the following
statements are equivalent.
(i) f is continuous at x = a.
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = f(a).
ℎ→0
(iii) Given any number ε> 0 there exists a corresponding number δ >0 so that if │x - a│< δ
then │f(x) – f(a)│ < ε.)
Proof
(Exercise)
22
Example
Show that the function f(x) = sin x is continuous at all numbers x.
Solution
The function f(x) = sin x is defined for all x.
lim 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎 + ℎ)
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
= lim ( sin 𝑎 cos ℎ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ)

ℎ→0
= sin a lim cos ℎ + cos a lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ

ℎ→0 ℎ→0
= sin a (1) + cos a (0)

= sin a
= f(a).
Theorem
Let lim 𝑔(𝑥) = L exist and assume that the function f is continuous at L.
𝑥→𝑎
Then lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = f(L).

𝑥→𝑎
That is, lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = f(lim 𝑔(𝑥)).

This theorem says that when the “outside” function in the composition fog is continuous, we
may “pass the limit inside the function f”.
Proof
Let ε > 0 be given. Since f continuous at L, there exists a number δ1 so that if |u − L| < δ1 then
|𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑓(𝐿)| < ε. Since lim 𝑔(𝑥) = L and δ1 > 0 there exist δ2 > 0 so that
𝑥→𝑎
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝐿| < δ1.

Let u = g(x). We conclude that if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝐿| < δ1 so |𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑓(𝐿)| < ε.
Thus lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = f(L).
𝑥→𝑎
Example
lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + 𝑥 2 ) = sin lim ( 𝜋 + 𝑥 2 ) = sin (𝜋 + 0) = sin 𝜋 = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim √1 + 𝑥 3 = √ lim (1 + 𝑥 3 ) = √1 + 8 = 3.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
The next theorem asserts that “the composition of two functions is a continuous function.”
23
Theorem
If g is continuous on an open interval containing x = a, and if f is continuous at L = g(a), then
the composite function fog is continuous at x = a.
Proof
Let ε > 0 be given. By continuity of f at L, there exists a number δ1 > 0 so that
if |u − L| < δ1 then |𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑓(𝐿)| < 𝜀. Since g is continuous at a, there exists δ2 > 0 so that
if |x − a| < δ2 then |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑎)| < δ1.
Let u = g(x). We conclude that if |x − a| < δ2 then |𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑎))| < ε.
This show that the composite function f0g is continuous at x = 2.
Example
The composite function y = sin(𝜋 + x2) is continuous on (-∞, ∞) since f(u) = sin u continuous for
all u and the function g(x) = (𝜋 + x2) is continuous for all x.
Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] with f(a) ≠ f(b). Let d be any number between
f(a) and f(b). Then there exists at least one number c ∈ (a, b) with f(c) = d.
The intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function cannot “skip” any numbers
in passing from any one of its value to another. The proof of this theorem is beyond the scope
of this text.
The intermediate Value Theorem is useful in solving inequalities of the form f(x) > 0 or f(x) < 0.
To do so, we first find the zeros of f. it then follows that f(x) must be of constant sign on the
resulting intervals, so the sign of f on any such interval can be determined by checking the sign
of f(x) at any number x in the interval.
If a and b are successive zeros of f, and if there were numbers x1 and x2 in (a, b) with f(x1) > 0
and f(x2) < 0, then The intermediate Value Theorem would guarantee the existence of a
number c in (x1, x2) ⊆ (a, b) with f(c) = 0. But this can not happen since a and b are successive
zeros of f.
Example
Use the Intermediate value Theorem to solve inequality x3 – 4x2 – 5x > 0.
Solution
The zeros of f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 5x are found by factoring
24
f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 5x = x(x2 – 4x – 5) = x (x+1)(x-5)
so f(x) = 0 for x = -1, 0, and 5.
The following table shows the result of checking the sign of f on the resulting intervals.
Interval Test number f(x) Conclusion

x
(-∞, -1) x = -2 f(-2) = -14 < 0 f(x) < 0 on (-∞, -1)
(-1, 0) 1 1 11 f(x) > 0 on (-1, 0)
x=-2 f(- 2) = 8
>0
(0, 5) x=1 f(1) = -8 < 0 f(x) < 0 on (0, 5)

(5, ∞) x=6 f(6) = 42 > 0 f(x) > 0 on (5, ∞)
The solution of the inequality is therefore (-1, 0) ∪ (5, ∞).
D. Questions
1. Find the limit!
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
a. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
b. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥 3 −6𝑥+5
c. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑥−4
d. lim
𝑥→4 √𝑥−2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
e. lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
f. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 𝑥
g. lim
𝑥→0 4𝑥
sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
h. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
i. lim 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑥→0
2. Suppose that 6x – x2 ≤ f(x) ≤ x2 -6x + 18 for all x. Find lim 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→3
|𝑥| |𝑥|
3. Let f(x) = 𝑥
and g(x) = - 𝑥
, x ≠ 0.
a. Find the function h = f + g!

b. Show that lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] exists, but that neither lim 𝑓(𝑥) nor lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
exists!
25
4. Find two functions f and g so that lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] exists, but either lim 𝑓(𝑥) or lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
fails to exist!
5. Find the limit, if it exists!
a. lim √𝑥 − 2
𝑥→2+
|𝑥−3|
b. lim
𝑥→3− 𝑥−3
c. lim √1 − 𝑥
𝑥→1−
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4
d. lim− 𝑥−2
𝑥→2
e. lim ⟦1 + 𝑥⟧
𝑥→3−
𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 ≤ −1
6. Let f(x) = {
−𝑥 , 𝑥 > −1
a. Find lim − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−1
b. Find lim + 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−1
c. Does lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist?

𝑥→−1
7. Find any numbers x at which the given function is discontinuous!

1
a. f(x) = 4−𝑥 2
𝑥+2
b. f(x) =
𝑥 2 − 𝑥−2
𝑥2 , 𝑥 < 0
c. f(x) = {
3𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0
−𝑥 , 𝑥≤0
2
d. f(x) = { 4 − 𝑥 , −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
1
2
𝑥−1 , 𝑥 >2
26
CHAPTER 3
DERIVATIVES
In this section we discuss about derivative as a function, rule for calculating derivatives,
derivatives of the trigonometric functions, higher order derivatives, the chain rule, implisit
and rational power functions differentiation
1. Understanding the derivative of functions and their properties.
2. Understanding the higher order derivatives and their properties.
3. Understanding the implisit and rational power functions differentiation.
3.1. The Derivative as a Function
In Section 2, we determined that the slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function f at the
point (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )), if it exists, is the limit
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
The quotient to which the limit is applied in equation (1) is called a difference
ℎ
quotient because it is the ratio of the change in the values of f and the change in x between the
points (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) and (𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ)) on the graph of f. Since we will find interpretations for
the limit of this difference quotient other than just as the slope of a tangent, we refer to the limit
in equation (1) more generally as the derivative of f at x0, and we denote it by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ).
DEFINITION
The derivative of the function f at x0 is the number
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓′(𝑥0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided this limit exists.
Figure 1 show the interpretation of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) as the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at
(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )). Figure 2 reminds us that the limit in equations (1) and (2) is “two-sided”. The
𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
difference quotient ℎ
must be defined for h<0 as well as for h>0, and the limits in
equations (1) and (2) must exist as h approaches zero from either the right or the left.
27
Figure 1 Figure 2
We say that the function f is differentiable at x0 if the limit 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) in Definition 1 exist. We refer to
the process of calculating the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) as differentiation of the function f.
When 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) exists for every x0 in an interval I, the process of differentiation actually produces
a new function 𝑓 ′ , defined on the interval I, with values 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
Definition
The derivative of the function f on the interval I, denoted by f’, is the function with values
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided this limit exists for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
Since the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )), we refer to
the derivative 𝑓 ′ as the slope function associated with the function f. You should note that the
values 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) of the derivative function are the slope of the tangents to the graph of f. Mastery of
the information in this chapter will enable you to determine and graph slope function.
Example
For the linear function f(x) = m x + b, the derivative is
28
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
[𝑚(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑏] − [𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚ℎ + 𝑏) − (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑚ℎ
= lim (ℎ ≠ 0)
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim 𝑚
ℎ→0
= 𝑚.
For the linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, the slope function (derivative) is 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑚.
Example
The derivative of the function f(x) = x2 is
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 𝑥 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim (2𝑥 + ℎ)
ℎ→0
Thus, for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓′(0) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (−3) = −6, 𝑓 ′ (2) = 4, and 𝑓 ′ (10) = 20.
29
Example
The derivative of the function f(x) = √𝑥 is
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
= lim ( ).( )
ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
1
= lim
ℎ→0 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
1
= .
2√𝑥
1 1 1 1
That is, for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = .. Thus, 𝑓 ′ (4) = , 𝑓′(9) = , 𝑓 ′ (27) = , but 𝑓 ′ (0) is not
2√𝑥 4 6 2√27
defined.
Theorem
If the function f and g are differentiable at x and c is any real number, then the function 𝑓 + 𝑔
and 𝑐𝑓 are also differentiable at x, and
(i) (𝑓 + 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥), and
(ii) (𝑐𝑓)′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
Proof
The proof that f + g is differentiable and equation (i) follow from the corresponding property of
limits: the limit of the sum is the sum of limit:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 + ℎ) − (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥)
(𝑓 + 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
[𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim { + }
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim { } + lim { }
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥).
30
The proof of part (ii) is left for you as an exercise.
Example
For ℎ(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 4√𝑥 find ℎ′ (𝑥).

Solution
This function has the form
ℎ(𝑥) = 3𝑓(𝑥) + 4𝑔(𝑥)
with
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥.
Using Theorem 1 and the result of Examples 2 and 3 we find that
ℎ′(𝑥) = 3𝑓′(𝑥) + 4𝑔′(𝑥)
1
= 3(2𝑥) + 4 ( )
2√𝑥
2
= 6𝑥 + .
√𝑥
Throughout this chapter we shall make frequent use the relationship between differentiability and
continuity, as described in the following theorem.
Theorem
Let the function f be defined on an open interval containing x0. If 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) exist, then f is continuous
at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
Proof
To prove that f is continuous at x0, we must show that lim 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ). Using the
ℎ→0
hypothesis that 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) exist, and the “Product Rule” for limits, we can write that
lim 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = lim [𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )]
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= lim [ ]ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= lim [ ] . (lim ℎ)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ). 0
= 0,
Which proves that lim 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ).
ℎ→0
31
It is important to note that the converse of the theorem is true. That is, a function may be
continuous at a number x = a but not differentiable at a. One such example is the absolute value
function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| at x = 0. We leave it as an exercise for you to verify that f is continuous at x
= 0, but that 𝑓′(0) does not exist.
3.2. Rule for Calculating Derivatives

For the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑𝑥
each mean 𝑓′(𝑥).
Theorem
Let f be the constant function with values 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 for all x. Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for all x.
𝑑
That is, (𝑐) = 0.
𝑑𝑥
Proof
By hypothesis, 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝑥), so
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐−𝑐 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim = lim = lim (0) = 0.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
The Power Rule

In Examples before, we saw that
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓′(𝑥) = 1
And
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥
Similarly, using the definition of the derivative you can show that
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 ,
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 ,
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 ,
and so forth. Each of these result is a special case of the following rule.
Theorem (Power Rule)
Let n be any nonzero integer.
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 is differentiable for all x, and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 . That is,
𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ….
𝑑𝑥
32
Proof
We shall prove this result for the case n>1 here. Using the Binomial Theorem we can write
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛−2
(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ℎ + 𝑥 ℎ + ⋯+ 𝑥 ℎ + 𝑛𝑥ℎ𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑛 .
2 2
We can therefore write the required difference quotient as follows:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛
=
ℎ ℎ
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 +{terms with factors of ℎ𝑃 , 𝑃 ≥ 1}.
We now observe that in the limit as h→0, all terms involving factors of hP will approach zero.
Thus, we conclude that
(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
ℎ→0 ℎ
Example
a. For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 27 , 𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 27𝑥 26 .
𝑑𝑦
b. For 𝑦 = 𝑥 −4 , 𝑑𝑥
= −4𝑥 −5 .
Example
Using the Power Rule and Theorems above we find that:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
a. (3𝑥 5 + 4) = 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 5 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (4)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 5 𝑑
=3 (𝑥 ) + (4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3(5𝑥 4 ) + 0
= 15𝑥 4 .
That is, for 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 4, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 15𝑥 4 .
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
b. (7𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 −3 ) = 7 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 4 ) − 5 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 −3 )
𝑑𝑥
= 7(4𝑥 3 ) − 5(−3𝑥 −4 )
= 28𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 −4 .
Example
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5,
𝑓′(𝑥) = 6(5𝑥 4 ) − 3(4𝑥 3 ) − 2(3𝑥 2 ) + 4(2𝑥) − 6(1)
= 30𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 6.
33
Differentiating Products
We can say that the derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives. This observation might
lead you to suspect also that the derivative of a product of two functions would be the product of
the individual derivatives. However, this is not true. A simple example is found by letting
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
Then,
𝑓′(𝑥) = 1 and 𝑔′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2
Now the product is ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥. 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 4 , which has derivative ℎ(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 . However, the
product of the individual derivatives is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1. 3𝑥 2 = 3𝑥 2 , not 4𝑥 3 .
The correct procedure for differentiating a product is given by the following theorem.
Theorem (Product Rule)

Let f and g be differentiable at x. Then the product function f g is differentiable at x, and
(𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥).
Proof
By the definition of the derivative
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
In order to factor the numerator, we subtract and add the quantity 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) and use the
algebra of limits to obtain
[𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)] + [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)]
(𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim [( ) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥) ( )]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= [lim ] [lim 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)] + [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] [lim ( )]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
Now since the function g is differentiable at x it must be continuous at x. Thus lim 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) =
ℎ→0
𝑔(𝑥). Since x is fixed in this argument, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). We therefore conclude that
ℎ→0
(𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)

And proof is complete.
Example
For 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 9), find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
Solution: One way to work this problem is to first multiply the two binomial terms,
34
𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 9) = 2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 63,
And then differentiate this polynomial:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 11.
Another approach is to begin applying the Product Rule:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [ (2𝑥 + 7)] (𝑥 − 9) + (2𝑥 + 7) [ (𝑥 − 9)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2(𝑥 − 9) + (2𝑥 + 7)(1)
= 4𝑥 − 11.
Of course, the result of either approach must be the same.
Example
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)(9𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3), it is easier to use the Product Rule to
calculate the derivative:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [ (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)] (9𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3) + (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥) [ (9𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (9𝑥 2 − 6)(9𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3) + (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)(36𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 )
= 189𝑥 6 + 54𝑥 5 − 270𝑥 4 − 72𝑥 3 + 27𝑥 2 − 18.
Our final theorem is the rule for differentiating quotients. It is even more surprising than the rule
for products.
Theorem (Quotient Rule)

Let f and g be differentiable at x with g(x)  0. Then the quotient 𝑓⁄𝑔 is differentiable at x and
𝑓 ′ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
( ) (𝑥) = .
𝑔 [𝑔(𝑥)]2
Proof
By the definition of the derivative we have
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ −
𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑔(𝑥)
( ) (𝑥) = lim
𝑔 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ𝑔(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
We proceed to subtract and add the expression 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) in the numerator so as to be able to
factor and again use the algebra of limits, to obtain
35
𝑓 ′ [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)][𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)]
( ) (𝑥) = lim
𝑔 ℎ→0 ℎ𝑔(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
[ ℎ ] 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) [ ℎ ]
= lim
ℎ→0 𝑔(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
[lim ℎ ] 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) [lim ℎ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
=
𝑔(𝑥) [lim 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)]
ℎ→0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)

=
[𝑔(𝑥)]2
(Notice that we have used the continuity of g in the denominator in the step above, just as we
did in the proof of the Product Rule.)
Example
3𝑥 2 +7𝑥+1
Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 9−𝑥 3
.
Solution
By the Quotient Rule we have
𝑑 𝑑
[𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1)] (9 − 𝑥 3 ) − (3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1) [𝑑𝑥 (9 − 𝑥 3 )]
′ (𝑥)
𝑓 =
(9 − 𝑥 3 )2
(6𝑥 + 7)(9 − 𝑥 3 ) − (3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1)(−3𝑥 2 )
=
(9 − 𝑥 3 )2
3𝑥 4 + 14𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 54𝑥 + 63
=
𝑥 6 − 18𝑥 3 + 81
Example
Prove the Power Rule for differentiating 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −𝑛 where n is a positive integer.
Solution
1
We write 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 and apply the Quotient Rule and the Power Rule for the case n>0 to obtain
0. 𝑥 𝑛 − 1. 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑥 2𝑛
= −𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1−2𝑛
= −𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1
36
3.3. Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions
Theorem
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is differentiable for all x, and 𝑓′(𝑥) = cos 𝑥. The function 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is
differentiable for all x, and 𝑔′(𝑥) = −sin 𝑥. That is,
𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cos 𝑥 = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof
The proof of this theorem uses the limit
sin ℎ
lim = 1,
ℎ→0 ℎ
1 − cos ℎ
lim = 0,
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑
To prove that 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 we use the basic definition of the derivative and the addition rule
for sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 :
𝑑 sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
(sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ) − sin 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ − 1 sin ℎ
= lim {sin 𝑥 ( ) + cos 𝑥 ( )}
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
= sin 𝑥 (lim ) + cos 𝑥 (lim )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= (sin 𝑥)(0) + (cos 𝑥)(1)
= cos 𝑥.
𝑑
To prove that cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 we proceed as above using the addition rule for cosine:
𝑑𝑥
cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽:
𝑑 cos(𝑥 + ℎ) − cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
(cos 𝑥 cos ℎ − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ) − cos 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
37
= cos 𝑥 (lim ) − sin 𝑥 (lim )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= (cos 𝑥)(0) − (sin 𝑥)(1)

= − sin 𝑥.
Example
For 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 the derivative is
𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑑
𝑥 sin 𝑥 = ( 𝑥 3 ) sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 ( sin 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 cos 𝑥.
Example
𝑑𝑦 2−cos 𝑥
Find for 𝑦 = .
𝑑𝑥 2+cos 𝑥
Solution
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 (2 + cos 𝑥) [ (2 − cos 𝑥)] − [ (2 + cos 𝑥)] (2 − cos 𝑥)
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 (2 + cos 𝑥)2
(2 + cos 𝑥)[−(− sin 𝑥)] − (− sin 𝑥)(2 − cos 𝑥)
=
(2 + cos 𝑥)2
4 sin 𝑥
=
(2 + cos 𝑥)2
Since each of the remaining trigonometric functions is defined as a ratio involving sin x, cos x, or
both, we may proceed as in Example above to determine their derivative. The result are the
following.
𝑑
tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cot 𝑥 = −csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑐𝑠𝑐 = −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3.4. Derivatives as Velocity

Definition
If the differentiable function 𝑠 gives the position at time 𝑡 of an object moving along a line, then
the velocity 𝑣(𝑡) at time t is the derivative
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)
38
That is,
𝑑
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡)
𝑑(𝑡)
Example
Starting at time 𝑡 = 0, a particle moves along a line so that its position after 𝑡 seconds is 𝑠(𝑡) =
𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 + 8 meters.
(a) Find its velocity at time 𝑡
(b) When is its velocity zero?
Solution
According to Definition , the velocity at time 𝑡 is
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 2𝑡 − 6.
Setting 𝑣(𝑡) = 0 gives 2𝑡 − 6 = 0, so 𝑡 = 3. The particle has zero velocity after 3 seconds.
Notice that the particle in example 1 lies 𝑠(0) = 8 meters from the origin at time 𝑡 = 0, but that
as 𝑡 increases from 0 to 3, 𝑠(𝑡) decreases from 8 meters to 𝑠(3) = −1 meter. If we think of the
particle as moving along a number line, this says that the particles moves to the left for 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
This corresponds to the obseration that 𝑣(𝑡) is negative for 𝑡 < 3. For 𝑡 > 3, the position 𝑠(𝑡)
increases as 𝑡 increases, so 𝑣(𝑡) > 0 atau 𝑡 > 3.
3.5. Higher Order Derivatives

Since differentiation produces a new function 𝑓 ′ from a given function 𝑓, it is entirely reasonable
to ask what happen if we differentiate the function 𝑓 ′ . The answer is simply that if 𝑓 ′ itself is a
differentiable function we will obtain its derivative, (𝑓′)′ . We call this the second derivative of 𝑓,
and we denote it by 𝑓". That is,
𝑓"(𝑥) = (𝑓′)′(𝑥).
39
The Leibniz notation for the second derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
= ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Similarly, beginning with 𝑓 and differentiating three times produces the third derivative, which is
denoted by
𝑑3 𝑦
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥), or 𝑑𝑥 3
and so on for higher order derivatives. For 𝑛 ≥ 4, 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) denotes the value of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative
of 𝑓 at 𝑥.
Examples
For the polynomial function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
We have
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 5,
𝑓"(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 6,
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 − 24,
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 24,
and
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑛 ≥ 5.
Example
Find the first three derivatives for the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥.
Solution
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑓"(𝑥) = 6𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
= 6𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 6 − 2 sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= 6 − 3 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Example
It is an important property of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 that they reappear in the
list of their own derivatives:
40
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑔′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑓"(𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 𝑔′′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑔′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑔(4) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑔(5) (𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
etc. etc.
From these lists you can see that both sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 satisfy the differential (or derivative)
equations
(i) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
(ii) 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Equation (i) is important in the modeling of oscillatory phenomena (such as problems in
engineering involving springs), while equation (ii) occurs in problems involving the deflection of
beams under heavy loading. We will have much more to say about differential equations later in
the text.
Acceleration: for a particle moving along a line, acceleration is defined to be the (instantaneous)
rate of change of velocity. Thus, if 𝑣 is a differentiable velocity function, the acceleration 𝑎(𝑡) is
defined as
𝑣(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑎(𝑡) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑣 ′ (𝑡)
That is, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity. Recall that if 𝑠(𝑡) is the position of the
particle, then 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡), so acceleration is the second derivative of position:
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)
or
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example
A particle moves along a line so that at time 𝑡 seconds its position is 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 7𝑡 − 2
meters.
a) Find the acceleration, 𝑎(𝑡), at time 𝑡.
b) Find the initial acceleration, 𝑎(0).
c) Find the time 𝑡0 at which acceleration equals zero.
41
Solution
We have 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 7, so
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡) = 6𝑡 − 12
𝑚
Thus, the initial acceleration is 𝑎0 = −12 2 , and
𝑠
𝑎(𝑡) = 0 when 𝑡 = 2 seconds.
Example
A projectile is fired vertically upward from ground level with an initial velocity of 100 meters per
second. In such a case the distance of the particle above ground level is given by the function
𝑠(𝑡) = 100𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 meters. Find the acceleration of the particle.
Solution
𝑚 𝑚
Here 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 100 − 9.8𝑡 𝑠
, so 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = −9.8 𝑠2 .
(Note that the acceleration is both constant and downward, it is referred to as the acceleration
due to gravity)
3.6. The Chain Rule

The goal of this section is to extend our list of differentiation rules to include composite functions
of the form 𝑦 = (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). The rule for differentialing the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is
called the Chain Rule. Before discussing it in its most general form we consider the special case
of a power 𝑔𝑛 of a function 𝑔.
The Power Rule for Function

If 𝑔 is a differentiable function of 𝑥, the Product Rule may be applied to determine the derivative
of its square:
(𝑔2 )′ (𝑥) = (𝑔. 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) = 2𝑔(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
Similarly, for integers 𝑛 ≥ 3 repeated application of the Product Rule shows that
(𝑔𝑛 )′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑔𝑛−1 (𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥).
If 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛 , then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 . .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The Power Rule says this; To find the derivative of function 𝑦 = 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛 , let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)
and differentiate the function 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛 as if 𝑦 were a function of the independent variable 𝑢. Then
𝑑𝑢
multiply the result by the derivative = 𝑔′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
42
Example
Find ℎ′ (𝑥) for ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 )3
Solution:
This function has the form ℎ(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]3 with “inside” function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 . Since the
derivative of this inside function is
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥
the Power Rule gives
ℎ′ (𝑥) = 3[𝑔(𝑥)]2 . 𝑔′ (𝑥)
= 3(𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 )2 (4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥).
Of course, we could also obtain ℎ′ by first writing ℎ as the polynomial
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 12 − 18𝑥 10 + 108𝑥 8 − 216𝑥 6
and then differentiating:
ℎ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 11 − 108𝑥 9 + 864𝑥 7 − 1296𝑥 5.
We leave it for you to verify that these two results are the same.
In Example above the advantage of the Power Rule solution is that the factors of ℎ′ (𝑥) are more
recognized than in the Polynomial Rule solution, although both methods apply. In Example below
the Power Rule is the only reasonable method available for finding the derivative.
Example
𝑥−3 9 𝑑𝑦
For 𝑦 = ( ) , find .
𝑥 3 +7 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Here we define 𝑢 to be the function
𝑥−3
𝑢=
𝑥3 − 7
Then, by the Quotient Rule,
𝑑𝑢 (𝑥 3 + 7)(1) − (𝑥 − 3)(3𝑥 2 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 7)2
−2𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 7
=
(𝑥 3 + 7)𝟐
Then, by the Power Rule for Function,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 9𝑢8 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
43
𝑥 − 3 8 −2𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 7
= 9( 3 ) [ ]
𝑥 +7 (𝑥 3 + 7)2
9(−2𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 7)(𝑥 − 3)8

=
(𝑥 3 + 7)10
The power function 𝑦 = 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) is special case of the more general notion of a composite function.
Composite functions have the form
(𝑓 ⋄ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
With an “outside” function 𝑓 acting on values 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) of an “inside” function 𝑔. In the power
function 𝑦 = 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥), the outside function is 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢𝑛 .
By way of review, here is a list of composite functions together with an indication of how they
may be viewed as having the form (3).
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)
√𝑥 2 + 3 𝑓(𝑢) = √𝑢 𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 3
1 1
𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢 =7−𝑥
7−𝑥 𝑢
3 3
4 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 2
(√𝑥 + 2) 𝑢4
2𝑥 − 9 3 2𝑥 − 9
( ) 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢3 𝑢=
2𝑥 + 9 2𝑥 + 9
Since the power function 𝑔𝑛 is a special case of composite function, we would expect the
derivative of composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 to be calculated in manner consistent with the Power Rule
for Function. This is indeed the case, and the result is called the Chain Rule.
Theorem
If the function 𝑔 is diiferentiable at 𝑥 and the function 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥), then the
composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is differentiable at 𝑥, and
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)
That is,
𝑑
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥).
𝑑(𝑥)
In Leibniz notation the rule is: If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥), then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= . .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
44
The Chain Rule says this: To differentiate the composition 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, first differentiate the “outside”
𝑑𝑢
function 𝑓 as a function of 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥). Then multiply the result by the derivative 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔′ (𝑥). Before
concerning ourselves with justifying the Chain Rule we shall apply it in several examples.
Example
1 𝑑𝑦
For 𝑦 = (6𝑥 3 −𝑥)4, find 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
Here we let 𝑢 be the “inside” function 𝑢 = 6𝑥 3 − 𝑥. Then
1 1
𝑦= = = 𝑢−4
(6𝑥 3 − 𝑥)4 𝑢4
so
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= −4𝑢−5, and 𝑑𝑥 = 18𝑥 2 − 1.
Then, by Chain Rule

= .
= −4𝑢−5 (18𝑥 2 − 1)
= −4(6𝑥 3 − 𝑥)−5 (18𝑥 2 − 1).
Example
𝑑𝑦
Find for 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(6𝑥 2 − 𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
Solution
This function is composite. The outside function is
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = sin 𝑢, with 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑢.
The inside function is

𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥, with 𝑑𝑥 = 12𝑥 − 1
The Chain Rule therefore gives

= .
= (cos 𝑢)(12𝑥 − 1)
= (12𝑥 − 1)𝑐𝑜𝑠(6𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
Justifying the Chain Rule
45
Here is an informal argument for the validity of the Chain Rule. We begin with the definition of
the derivative of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔:
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
and use some elementary algebra to obtain the statement
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim [ ].[ ]
ℎ→0 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ
We next let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥). Then 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑣, and we can
write
𝑓(𝑢 + 𝑣) − 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim [ ].[ ]
ℎ→0 𝑣 ℎ
Since 𝑔 is differentiable at 𝑥, it is continous at 𝑥
lim [𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑣 = 0.
ℎ⟶0 ℎ⟶0
That is, 𝑣 ⟶ 0 as ℎ ⟶ 0. Using this observation and the algebra of limits we have
𝑓(𝑢 + 𝑣) − 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = lim [ ].[ ]
ℎ→0 𝑣 ℎ
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑢). 𝑔′ (𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)
as desired.
3.7. Implicit Differentiation and Rational Power Functions

When a function is specified by an equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) we say that we have 𝑦
determined as an explicit function of 𝑥. This is because for each number 𝑥 precisely one value
of 𝑦 is determined by substituting 𝑥 into the right-hand side of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). However,
some equation involving the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 determine interesting relations between these
variables even though the equations can not be brought into the explicit form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). For
example, the equation
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑦) = 1
Determines a seemly complex relation between the variable 𝑥 and 𝑦 that, at the moment, we can
study only by plotting pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) where sin(𝑥𝑦) = 1 (see Figure )
46
Similarly, the equation
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
16 9
determines the familiar ellipse in the plane although it cannot be brought into the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
The best we can do is solve for 𝑦 as
𝑥2
𝑦 = ±3√1 −
16
(Because of the ± sign, the right-hind side does not determine a function of 𝑥 since more than
one value of 𝑦 can correspond to a given number 𝑥.)
Regardless of whether an equation in 𝑥 and 𝑦 defines a function, near any particular point
(𝑥, 𝑦) on the graph of that equation we can ask about the slope of the tangent. If the tangent at
this point exists and is not vertical, its slope can often be obtained from the equation by
application of the Chain Rule. When restricted to a small region near any particular point on its
graph, the equation may indeed define a differentiable function whose derivative is the desired
slope.
Example
47
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of the ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
16 9
3√3
At the point (2, 2
)
Solution
We see that 𝑦 can be considered a function of 𝑥 if we impose the condition 𝑦 > 0. Differentiating
both sides of the equation, regarding 𝑦 as an unsspecified function of 𝑥,we obtain
2𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ . = 0,
16 9 𝑑𝑥
So,
𝑑𝑦 9𝑥
=− , 𝑦 ≠ 0.
𝑑𝑥 16𝑦
3√3 3√3
At the point (2, 2
),we have 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 2
so
𝑑𝑦 9(2) √3
=− =− ,
𝑑𝑥 3√3 4
16 (
2 )
Which is the desire slope.(Alternatively , we could have been asked for the slope of the tangent
at the point (2, −3√3⁄2).Then we would have used the restriction 𝑦 > 0 to make 𝑦 a function of
𝑑𝑦⁄ 3
𝑥 . The result would be 𝑑𝑥 = √ ⁄4 .
The technique used in example above is called implicit differentiation. It can be summarized as
follows:
Differentiate both sides of the given equation implicitly defines 𝑦 as an anspecified differentiable
function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
Differentiate both sides of the given equation , remembering that the factor 𝑑𝑥 will occur in any
differentiation of a term involving the function 𝑦 ,according to the Chain Rule.
𝑑𝑦
Solve the resulting equation for .
𝑑𝑥
Example
The equation
𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2
Determines 𝑦 as a differentiable function of 𝑥 near (2, 2).(You may verity this by plotting a portion
of the graph of the equation .We obtain 𝑦 as a differentiable function of 𝑥 in the region where
48
𝑑𝑦
1 < 𝑥 < 3 and 1 < 𝑦 < 3. Find an expression for 𝑑𝑥 near (2, 2), and the slope of the line tangent
to the graph of equation at (2, 2).
Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦. 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 2 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Thus,
𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑦) = 6𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦,
𝑑𝑥
so,
𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦
= 2 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑦
For 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 2 we have
𝑑𝑦 6 . 2 − 2 . 2 .2 1
= = .
𝑑𝑥 22 + 2 . 2 2
Which is the desired slope.
Example
Find an equation of the line normal to the graph of
𝑦3 − 𝑥2 = 7
at the point (1, 2).
Solution
We have begin by differentiating implicity. We obtain
𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 . − 2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
so
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
= 2.
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦
At the point (1, 2) the slope of the tangent is therefore
2 .1 1
𝑚1 = 2
= ,
3 .2 6
so, the slope of the normal, which is perpendicular to the tangent, is
1
𝑚2 = − 𝑚 = −6.
1
Differentiating Rational
49
The following theorem tells us that the Power Rule extends to all power functions, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑟 ,
with 𝑟 rational.
Theorem
𝑝
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑞 , where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers with 𝑝 ≠ 0 and 𝑞 ≠ 0. Then 𝑓 is differentiable and
𝑝 𝑝−1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑞
𝑞
Whenever 𝑓(𝑥) and the right side of equation are defined. In Leibniz notation,
𝑝 𝑝
𝑑 𝑝 −1
(𝑥 𝑞 ) = ( ) 𝑥𝑞 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑞
𝑝
Assuming 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑞 to be a differentiable function of 𝑥 (a fact that we shall assume but not
prove). We can establish equation above by implicit differentiation as follows. Let 𝑥 ≠ 0 be in the
domain of the function
𝑝
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑞
Where 𝑝 and 𝑞 ≠ 0 are integers. Then 𝑦 ≠ 0, and
𝑝 𝑞
𝑦 𝑞 = (𝑥 𝑞 ) = 𝑥 𝑝 .
𝑝
𝑑𝑦
Recalling that 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑞 ≠ 0, we can now solve for 𝑑𝑥
as
𝑑𝑦 𝑝
= ( ) 𝑥 𝑝−1 𝑦1−𝑞
𝑑𝑥 𝑞
𝑝 1−𝑞
𝑝 𝑝−1
= (𝑞 ) 𝑥 (𝑥 𝑞 )
𝑝 𝑝
−𝑝
= ( ) 𝑥 𝑝−1 𝑥 𝑞
𝑞
𝑝 (𝑝−1+𝑝−𝑝)
= ( )𝑥 𝑞
𝑞
𝑝
𝑝 −1
= (𝑞 ) 𝑥 𝑞 ,
which is the formula in Theorem.

Example
4
For 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3 , find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
Solution
50
1
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3)4 then
1 3 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3)−4 . (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3)
4 𝑑𝑥
3
1
= 4 (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3)−4 . (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥).
Example
Find the velocity of an object that moves along a line so that it is at location
2
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 sin(1 + √𝑡) at time 𝑡.
Solution
Using the Product Rule, Power Rule, and Chain Rule we obtain the velocity function
2 1 1 2 1 𝑑 1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = ( 𝑡 −3 ) sin (1 + 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑡 3 cos (1 + 𝑡 2 ) . (1 + 𝑡 2 )
3 𝑑𝑡
2 1 1 2 1 1 1
= 𝑡 −3 sin (1 + 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑡 3 cos (1 + 𝑡 2 ) ( 𝑡 −2 )
3 2
1 1
2 1 1 1
= 𝑡 −3 sin (1 + 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑡 6 cos (1 + 𝑡 2 ).
3 2
(Note that 𝑣(0) is undefined)
Example
1 2
1
The derivative (slope function) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 −3 .
3
Note that 𝑓′(0) is undefined and that the slopes of the tangents approach +∞ as 𝑥 approches
zero from either direction.
1⁄
However , the graph of𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 does have a tangent at 𝑥 = 0.The slope of the secant line
1
through (0,0) and (ℎ, 𝑓(ℎ)) = (ℎ, ℎ ⁄3 ) is
1
𝑓(0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(0) ℎ ⁄3 − 0 1
= = 2
ℎ ℎ ℎ ⁄3
1
Thus, the secant through (0, 0) and (ℎ, ℎ3 ) rotates into the position of the vertical line through (0,
0) as ℎ approaches zero. This shows that the graph of 𝑓 may have a vertical tangent when 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
fails to exist
D. Questions
51
1. Use the Definition to find 𝑓′.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 7
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 3
1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥−1
1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −9
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 3
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2
1
g. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+1)2
−2
h. 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥+1
1
2. Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of 𝑦 = at the point (0,1/3).
2𝑥+3
3. Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1 at the point (3,2).
4. A normal to a curve at point P is a line through P perpendicular to the tangent. Find an
equation for the normal to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 7 at the point P = (3,2).
5. Find the point where the tangent to graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 has slope 4.
6. Find a so that the graph of 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑎𝑥 2 has a tangent with slope 6 at x = -1.
7. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 3. Find a and b so that the tangent to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at (1,5)
has slope 1.
8. Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous at x = 0, but that 𝑓′(0) fails to exist. Let
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 10. For which numbers x is the slope of the line tangent to the graph
of f greater than zero?
9. Let
𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
6𝑥 − 8, 𝑥 < 3.
Is f differentiable at x = 3? Why?
Is f continuous at x = 3? Why?
10. True or false: If the statement is true, explain why. If it is false, give a counterexample.
a. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist then f is continuous at a.
𝑥→𝑎
b. If f is continuous at a then lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist.
𝑥→𝑎
c. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist, then f is differentiable at a.
𝑥→𝑎
d. If f is differentiable at a, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist.
𝑥→𝑎
e. If f continuous at a then f is differentiable at a.
f. If f differentiable at a then f is continuous at a.
11. Find the derivative of the given function.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 5
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎5 − 3𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3
𝑥 2 +5
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2
− 1)(2 − 𝑥)
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑥)2
3
52
𝑥+2
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
(8𝑥+2)(𝑥+1)
g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
2 3 2
h. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
(2𝑥+1)(3𝑥+2)
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
j. 𝑓(𝑢) = (𝑢4 + 4) 3
k. 𝑓(𝑥) = ((𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 1)2

12. Use the Product Rule to establish the following formula for the derivative of the product of
three functions:
(𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)ℎ(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)ℎ′(𝑥)
13. Use the Product Rule and the result of Exercise above to establish the following
differentiation rules.
a. (𝑓 2 )′ (𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) (𝑓 2 (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2 ).
b. (𝑓 3 )′ (𝑥) = 3𝑓 2 (𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) (𝑓 3 (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)]3 ).
In each of Exercice14 and 15, find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of the given
function at the given point.
14. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 7 at the point (1,-4)
1 2
15. 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 − 𝑥) at the point (1,0)
3𝑥
16. Find the points at which the tangent to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−4 has slope m = -3.
1
17. Find the constant a if the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥+2 has tangent 4𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 at (0,1/2).
18. In the following function find 𝑓′(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 cos 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 tan 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 . sec 𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑥
e. 𝑓(𝑥) =
2+sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+tan 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
19. Use the Product Rule to show that 𝑑𝑥 tan2 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 sec 2 𝑥.
20. The function 𝑠 gives the position of a particle moving along a line. Find a. the velocity function
𝑣(𝑡), b. the time (s) 𝑡0 ≥ 0 at which velocity is zero, and c. the intervals in (0, ∞) on which
velocity is positive.
a. 𝑠(𝑡) = 3𝑡 − 2
1
b. 𝑠(𝑡) = 1+𝑡
c. 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 9𝑡 2 + 24𝑡 + 10
d. 𝑠(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡
21. A particle moves along a line so that after 𝑡 seconds its position is 𝑠(𝑡) = 6 + 5𝑡 − 𝑡 2 . Find
its maximum distance from the origin during the time interval [0,6]
22. A particle moves along a line so that at time 𝑡 its position is 𝑠(𝑡) = 6𝑡 − 𝑡 2 .
a. What is its initial velocity, that is, 𝑣0 ?
53
b. When does it change direction?
c. How fast is it moving when it reaches the origin the second time?
23. When an object is launched vertically from an initial height of 𝑠0 meters with initial velocity
𝑚
of 𝑣0 𝑠 , its position after 𝑡 seconds is 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 meters.
a. Find its velocity after 4 seconds.
b. Find its speed after 4 seconds.
24. In exercise a-d form the composite function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) with 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥). Then find 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥
using the Chain Rule.
a. 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢3 + 1
𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2
𝑢+1
b. 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢−1
𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑢) = tan 𝑢
𝑔(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 2
d. 𝑓(𝑢) = cos 𝑢
𝑔(𝑢) = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
25. Find using the Chain Rule.
𝑑𝑥
a. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 4)3
b. 𝑦 = (cos 𝑥 − 𝑥)6
c. 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 4 − 5)3
1
d. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 −9)3
𝑥−3 4
e. 𝑦 = (𝑥+3)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
26. Find 𝑑𝑥 using the property 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))) . 𝑔′ (ℎ(𝑥)). ℎ′ (𝑥)
a. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥 3 + 𝜋𝑥)
b. 𝑦 = [1 + (𝑥 2 − 3)4 ]6
1+𝑥
c. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (1−𝑥)
27. Find 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥
1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
28. Find 𝑑𝑥 2
1−sin 𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) =
cos 𝑥
2 1
b. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
c. 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥+cot 𝑥
54
𝑑𝑦
d. 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 4 (1 − 𝑥 4 )
29. Find the indicated derivative
𝑥
a. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
b. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥
𝑑4 𝑦
c. 𝑑𝑥 4
for 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 1)4
𝑑3 𝑦
d. for 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 3
30. Explain why the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 has derivatives of all orders (i. e. ,
why 𝑝(𝑥) is infinitely differentiable).
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVES
55
In this section we discuss about extreme values and the mean values theorem,
increasing and decreasing functions, relative extrema, significant of the second derivative
concavity, curve sketching, extrema on closed bounded intervals: max-min problems
1. Understanding the extreme value.
2. Applying the extreme value.
4.1. Extreme Values and the Mean Value Theorem
There are many situations in which one wishes to find the maximum or minimum value of a
function. Here are but a few examples.
a. An aircraft engineer may wish to find the air speed at which an aircraft operates most
efficiently.
b. A chemist may wish to find a temperature at which a certain chemical reaction proceeds most
rapidly.
c. A manufacturing company may wish to determine the production rate at which its average
cost per item is a minimum.
In order to solve applied problems of this type we must first determine how to use the derivative to
analyze the behavior of a given function. This section presents two important tools which we shall
use in this analysis: the Extreme Value Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem.
Extreme Values
By the extreme values of a function we simply mean its largest and smallest values. In order to
be precise in using these terms we must also specify the set of numbers for which the function is
defined.
Let the function f be defined for all numbers x in a set S.

(i) The maximum value of f on the set S is the value M for which
f(c) = M for at least one number 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, and f(x) M for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆.
(ii) The minimum value of f on the set S is the value in for which
f(d) = m for at least one number 𝑑 ∈ 𝑆, and f(x) m for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆.
(iii) By the extreme values (or extrema) of f on S we mean both the maximum and minimum
values of f on S.
For a function f defined on an interval S = [a, b], note that the extrema M = f(c) and m = f(d) are
values of the function f, while c and d are the numbers in the interval [a, b] at which these extrema
occur.
56
It is not necessary that a given function have either a maximum or a minimum value on a given
set S. For example, the function f(x) = x2 does not have a maximum value on the set S = (-∞, ∞)
of all real numbers x, and the function g(x) = x does not have a minimum value on the set S = (-
1, 1] .
An important property of continuous functions, however, is that a continuous function will always
have both a maximum and a minimum value on a closed finite interval S = [a, b]. Although the
proof of this fact is beyond the scope of this text, it is a theorem on which much of what follows
depends because it guarantees the existence of the extrema which we shall seek.
Theorem (Existence of Extreme Values)

If the function f is continuous on the closed finite interval [a, b] then f has both a maximum and
a minimum value on [a, b].
Extreme Values and the Derivative
if 𝑓(𝑐) is an extreme value for f and a < c < b then 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0
The reason for this fact is simple: if 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value for f, then (𝑐, 𝑓′(𝑐)) is the
"high point" on the graph of f, so the tangent to the graph of f at this point should be horizontal.
Since 𝑓′(𝑐) is the slope of this tangent, this means that 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0. The same reasoning leads
to the conclusion that 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0 if 𝑓(𝑐) is the minimum value of f on [a, b] and a < c < b. Here
is the formal statement of this observation.
Theorem (Extreme Value Theorem)

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). If f(c) is the maximum or minimum value of f
on [a, b] and if 𝑓′(𝑐) exists then 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
Proof
Let 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and consider first the case where 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value of f on [𝑎, 𝑏]. We
shall show that both of the statements 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) > 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) < 0 lead to contradictions, leaving
us with the conclusion that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 as claimed.
If it were the case that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) > 0, this would mean that
𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
lim >0
ℎ→0 ℎ
From the definition of limit and from inequality (1) it follows that
𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
>0
ℎ
for h sufficiently close to zero. Note also that since a < c < b, the number c + h lies in the
open interval (a, b) for h sufficiently small. For such h it follows that if h> 0,
𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐) > 0
57
It now 𝑓(𝑐) < 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ), contradicting the fact that 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value of f on [a, b].
This same argument shows that if we assume that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) < 0 we are led to the inequality
𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
<0
ℎ
which, for h < 0, shows that 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐) < 0 again giving the contradiction 𝑓(𝑐) <
𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ). Thus, if 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value of f on [a, b] and 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) we must have
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 when 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists.
The proof for the case where 𝑓(𝑐) is the minimum value of f on [a, b] follows by the same
argument.
REMARK: It is important to note that the Extreme Value Theorem applies only to the case
in which the extreme value 𝑓(𝑐) occurs at an interior point 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) of the closed interval [a, b]
(i.e., not at an endpoint) and where the derivative 𝑓′(𝑐) exists. In later sections we will consider
situations in which extrema occur at endpoints or where 𝑓′(𝑐) fails to exist.
The following examples illustrate the Extreme Value Theorem.
Example
Figure above shows the graph of the continuous function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 on the interval
[0, 4π]. Note that
𝜋 5𝜋
a. The maximum value 𝑓 ( 2 ) = 𝑓 ( 2 ) = 1 occurs where the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 equals
zero:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′ ( ) = cos ( ) = 0
2 2
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓′ ( ) = cos ( ) = 0.
2 2
3𝜋 7𝜋
b. The minimum value 𝑓 ( 2 ) = 𝑓 ( 2 ) = −1 occurs where the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 equals
zero:
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑓′ ( ) = cos ( ) = 0
2 2
58
7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑓′ ( ) = cos ( ) = 0.
2 2
Note also that this example shows that the maximum and minimum values of a function may
occur at more than one number x.
Example
Figure beside shows the graph of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 on the interval [-3, 3]. Note that the maximum
value of f on this interval is
𝑓(0) = 4 − 0 = 4
and that, since 𝑓′(𝑥) = −2𝑥, 𝑓′(0) = 0 according to the
Extreme Value Theorem. The minimum value of f on
[-3, 3], however, is 𝑓(−3) = 𝑓(3) = −5. Note that we do not
have 𝑓′(0) = 0 for 𝑐 = −3 or 𝑐 = 3, since
𝑓 ′ (−3) = −2(−3) = 6 and 𝑓 ′ (3) = −2(3) = −6
This is because the minimum value occurs at the endpoints of the interval rather than at an
interior point. Thus, the Extreme Value Theorem does not apply at these points.
Theorem (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let f be continuous on the interval [a, b], let 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exist for each 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and let 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏).
Then there exists at least one number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
Proof
Let K denote the common value 𝐾 = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) and note first that if f is a constant
function on [a, b] we must have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. Thus, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
so any number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) satisfies the conclusion 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
If f is not a constant function, then since f is continuous on [a, b] , then f must have a maximum
value M on [a, b] with M > K or a minimum value m with m < K. This is because 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) =
𝐾.
59
In either case we have the existence of an extreme value for f which must occur at a number 𝑐 ∈
(𝑎, 𝑏). Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists, the Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
Theorem (Mean Value Theorem)

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exist for each 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Then there exists at least
one number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) for which
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
Proof
The key to proving the Mean Value Theorem is to remember that the number c which satisfies
Rolle's Theorem is the number for which 𝑓(𝑥) is a maximum on [a, b]. Since we have
generalized Rolle's Theorem by "tilting" the line 1 through (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)), we now seek the
number x = c for which the vertical distance d(x) between the graph of f and the line 1 is a
maximum. Since the line 1 contains the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)), the coordinates of a point P
= (x, y) on 1 must satisfy the equation
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
= (= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙)
𝑥−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
so
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎) + [ ] (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑏−𝑎
if P=(x, y) is on 1. The vertical distance (or its negative) between the point P =(x, y) on 1 and
the point Q = (x, f(x)) on the graph of f is therefore
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − {𝑓(𝑎) + [ 𝑏−𝑎
] (𝑥 − 𝑎)}. (i)
We next note the following facts about the function y = d(x):

(1) It is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) because f has these proper-
ties.
(2) Letting x = a in (i) shows that
60
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑑(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) − {𝑓(𝑎) + (0)} = 0.
𝑏−𝑎
(3) Similarly, letting x = b in (i) shows that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑑(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑏) − {𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎)} = 0.
𝑏−𝑎
Thus, the function d satisfies all hypotheses of Rolle's Theorem so, by Rolle's Theorem, there
exists a number c  (a, b) for which
𝑑′ (𝑐) = 0.
We see that
𝑑′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) −
𝑏−𝑎
so we conclude that
𝑓 ′(𝑐) − = 0,
𝑏−𝑎
which gives the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem.
The number which is the slope of the line through (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)), is referred
𝑏−𝑎
to as the average change in f, per unit change in x, over the interval [a, b]. The Mean Value
Theorem therefore says that the average change in f over [a, b] is given by the derivative at one
(or more) number c. This ability to represent the change in f over an interval by a value of its derivative
at a single number is an important tool that will he used to analyze the behavior of functions in
the next section.
The next example reminds you that we have encountered this concept of average change in f
previously in our study of rectilinear motion.
Example
For an object travelling along a line (such as an automobile on a highway) if s(t) represents the
position of the object at time t we define the average velocity of the object between times t = a
and t = b to be
𝑠(𝑏) − 𝑠(𝑎) change in distance
average velocity = (= )
𝑏−𝑎 change in time
Recall also that we have defined the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t to be the
derivative
𝑠(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑠(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = lim = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)
ℎ→0 ℎ
61
Thus, for a differentiable position function 𝑦 = 𝑠(𝑡) the Mean Value Theorem says that the
average velocity from time t a to time t = b equals the instantaneous velocity 𝑣(𝑐) = 𝑠′(𝑐) for
at least one time t = c between a and b.
For example, if an automobile travels 90 miles in 2 hours and 𝑠(𝑡) represents the distance
travelled after t hours, the average velocity during this time period is
𝑠(2) − 𝑠(0)
average velocity =
2−0
90 − 0
=
2−0
= 45 mi/h.
We may therefore conclude, by the Mean Value Theorem, that the automobile has velocity v(c)
= 45 mi/h at least one instant t = c during this period.
Example
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
Since f is continuous on [0, 4] and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists for each 𝑥 ∈ (0,4), the Mean Value Theorem
guarantees the existence of a number c for which
𝑓(4) − 𝑓(0)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
4−0
√4 − √0
=
4−0
1
= .
2
1
To find c we note that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 𝑥, so equation becomes
√
1 1
=
2√𝑐 2
Thus, c = 1.
Example
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2⁄3 does not satisfy the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem on the
2 2
interval [-1, 1] because 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 𝑥 −1⁄3 = 3 so 𝑓 ′ (0) is not defined. In this example we have
3 √𝑥
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) (1)2⁄3 − (−1)2⁄3

= =0
𝑏−𝑎 2 − (−2)
But 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all x with −1 < 𝑥 < 1 and 𝑥 ≠ 0.
62
4.2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In this section we establish a relationship between the sign of the derivative and whether the
graph of the function f is rising or falling. Rising graph corresponds to tangents with positive
slope. Similarly, a falling graph suggests negative slopes.
Theorem
Let f be continuous on the interval I and let f’(x) exist for all x  I except possibly at
endpoints. Then
(i) If f’(x) > 0 for all x in I that are not endpoints, then f is increasing on I.
(ii) If f’(x) < 0 for all x in I that are not endpoints, then f is decreasing on I.
Proof
To prove part (i) we use definition by assuming that 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are any numbers in I with 𝑥1 <
𝑥2 and showing that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ). For such numbers 𝑥1 and 𝑥2, our hypotheses guarantee that
f is continuous on [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] and that f’(x) exist for all x  (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) . thus, the Mean Value Theorem
guarantees the existence of a number c  (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) for which
𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
We are assuming that f’ (x) > 0 for all x  (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), we know that f’(c) > 0. Thus, the left side of
equations (1) is a positive number. Since 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 > 0. it follow that 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 0 also. That
is, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ). Since 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 were any number in I with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , this show that f is increasing
on I. this proves statement (i).
The proof for statement (ii) is the same except, since we are assuming f’(x) < 0 for x  (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ),
we have f’(c) < 0 in equation (I). it follow that 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 0, so 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) and f is
decreasing on I.
Example
63
Use theorem to verify that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 is
(a) Increasing on the interval (−∞, 0), and
(b) Decreasing on the interval [0, ∞).
Solution
Since f’(x) = -2x exists for all x, f is continuous and differentiable for all x, so
(a) For x  (−∞, 0), f’(x) = -2x is positive. Thus, f increasing on (−∞, 0].
(we include the endpoint 0 because f(0) is defined and f is continuous on the interval
(−∞, 0]).
(b) For x  (0, ∞) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 is 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 so f is decreasing on [0, ∞).
Example
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is
𝜋
(a) Increasing on [0, 2 ], because 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is positive for x  (0 2π).
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
(b) Decreasing on [ 2 , 2
], because 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is negative on ( 2 , 2
).
3𝜋 3𝜋
(c) Increasing on [ 2
, 2𝜋], because 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is positive for x  ( 2 , 2𝜋).
Example
The function f defined as follows:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 , 𝑥≠0
0, 𝑥=0
Note that f(x) is defined for all x, but that f is continuous only on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
−1
since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥2
is negative for all 𝑥 ≠ 0, we conclude that f is decreasing both on (−∞, 0) and
on (0, ∞).
Note that we may not conclude that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0] or on [0, ∞) because f is not
continuous on these interval. In fact, f is not decreasing on (−∞, 0] or on [0, ∞).
Example
The function f defined on [0, 2] by
𝑥, 0≤𝑥≤1
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥+1 1<𝑥≤2
Is increasing on [0, 2] as you can verify directly from definition.
Example
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is continuous and differentiable for all x. since 𝑥23 > 𝑥13 whenever
𝑥2 > 𝑥1 this functions is increasing on (-∞, ∞). we can conclude in two steps as follow :
For x < 0 we have f’(x) = 3𝑥 2 > 0. Since f is continuous at x = 0, we may conclude that f is
increasing on (-∞, 0].
64
Similarly, since f’(x) = 3𝑥 2 > 0 for x > 0, f is increasing on [0, ∞).
Statements (i) and (ii) combine to tell us that f is increasing on (-∞, 0] ∪ [0, ∞) =(-∞, ∞).
Critical numbers
For function that are differentiable except at(few) finitely many number x, there is a procedure
for finding the largest intervals on which f is either increasing or decreasing. A key concept in
this procedure is that of a critical number for f, which we define as follow.
Definition
The critical number for a function f are those numbers c in the domain of f for which either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
= 0 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) fails to exist.
Procedure for finding the largest intervals on which f is either increasing or decreasing:
Locate all critical number for f.
Find the intervals in the domain of f determined by the critical numbers and any numbers x for
which 𝑓(𝑥) is undefined.
Apply theorem in each interval.
Example
Find the largest intervals on which the function
1 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4
3
Is either increasing or decreasing.
Solution
Here 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1).
Setting 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 gives the critical numbers x = -1 and x = 3. There are no
numbers x for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is undefined or for which 𝑓(𝑥) is undefined.
From the factored form of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), we can see that
(i) If x < -1, then both (x – 3) < 0 and (x + 1) < 0. Thus f’(x) > 0 for x  (−∞, −1), so f is
increasing on (−∞, −1].
(ii) If -1 < x < 3, then (x – 3) < 0, but (x + 1) > 0. Thus f’(x) < 0 for x  ( −1, 3), so f is
decreasing on [-1 , 3].
(iii) If x > 3, then both (x – 3) > 0 and (x + 1) > 0. Thus f’(x) > 0 for x  (3, ∞), so f is increasing
on [3, ∞).
4.3. Relative Extrema
Definition
65
The value f(c) is a relative maximum for the function f if there exists a number h > 0 so that
interval [c – h, c + h] is in the domain of f, and 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value for f on [c – h, c + h],
that is, so that
𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x  [c – h, c + h].
Similarly, the value f (c) is a relative minimum if there exists a number h > 0 so that the interval
[c – h, c + h] is in the domain of f, and 𝑓(𝑐) is the minimum value for f on [c – h, c + h], that is, so
that
𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x  [c – h, c + h].
the term relative extrema refers to both relative maxima and relative minima.
Definition above is stated in a manner that emphasizes the relationship between relative extrema
and extrema on closed finite intervals. A relative extremum 𝑓(𝑐) becomes an extremum if we
restrict the interval on which the function is the defined to a “small” interval containing x = c.
If a function f has a largest value on its domain, say 𝑓(𝑥) = M, we will refer to M as the maximum
or absolute maximum, for f, and similarly for absolute minima. However, functions whose
domains are not restricted to finite closed intervals need not have absolute extrema, as
Example below shows.
Example
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 has
(a) A relative maximum value f(-1) = 2 at x1 = -1.
(b) A relative minimum value f(1) = - 2 at x2 = 1.
Note that the derivative is 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3, and that f’(x) = 0 for both x = -1 and x = 1. Note also
that although f(-1) = 2 is a relative maximum, the function f has no maximum value. This is
because f(x) increases without bound as x increases beyond x = 1. Similarly, f(1) = -2 is a relative
minimum, but the function f has no minimum value.
Example
2
The function f(x) = 𝑥 3 has a relative minimum value of f(0) = 0 at x = 0. This relative minimum
2 1 2
is also the minimum value for f throughout its domain since f(x) = 𝑥 3 = (𝑥 3 ) is positive for all x
≠ 0.
1
2 2
Note, however, that the derivative f’(x) = 3 𝑥 −3 = 3 is undefined for x = 0. This fact accounts
3 √𝑥
for the cups, or point, in the graph of f at (0, 0).
Finding Relative Extrema
66
Both of the Example above show how relative extrema can occur at numbers x for which either
𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 or else 𝑓′(𝑥) fails to exist. The following theorem guarantees that these are the only
situations in which relative extrema occur.
Theorem
Let f be continuous function if 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative extremum for f, then either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 or else 𝑓′(𝑐)
fails to exist.
Proof
If 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative extremum for f then, according to definition , there is a number h > 0 so that f
is defined on the closed bounded interval [c – h, c + h] and 𝑓(𝑐) is either maximum or minimum
value of f on this interval. Thus, by the Extreme Value Theorem, either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 or else 𝑓′(𝑐)
fails to exist.
Recall that the number c is called a critical number for f if either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓′(𝑐) fails to exists.
Thus, this theorem states that relative extrema can occur only at critical numbers.
However, not all critical numbers correspond to relative extrema. A typical example of this is
found in the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 . Here f’(x) = 3x2 so f’(0)= 0, but f(0) is neither a relative maximum
nor a relative minimum (see figure 3.6). In this example 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is an increasing function for x
on either side of the critical numbers x = 0. For a critical number to yield a relative extremum, in
the function must change from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa, at the critical number.
Since the sign of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) determines whether f is increasing or decreasing, we can use f’ to identify
relative maxima and minima, as well as critical numbers that yield neither. The procedure for
doing this is called the First Derivate Test.
Theorem
First Derivative Test
Let c be a critical numbers for f, let f be continuous at c, and let 𝑓′(𝑥) exist for all x in an interval
[c – h, c + h], h > 0, except possibly at x = c. then f (c) is a relative extremum for f if and only if
𝑓′(𝑥) changes sign at x = c. specifically, for x  [c – h, c + h],
(i) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for x < c and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 for x > c, then f (c) is a relative maximum;
(ii) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0for x < c and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for x > c, then f (c) is a relative minimum;
(iii) If f’(x) does not change sign at x = c, then the f (c) is neither a relative maximum nor a
relative minimum;
Proof
To proof statement (i) we note first that since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for x  (c – h, c) and f continuous at c, it
follow that f is increasing on [c – h, c ], so 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x  [c – h, c]. Similarly, since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) <
0 for x  (c, c + h) and f continuous at c, it follow that f is decreasing on [c, c + h], so f (c) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)
67
for all x  [c, c + h]. Together these two observations show that 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x  [c – h, c +
h]. Thus, 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative maximum.
The proof of statement (ii) and (iii) follow from the same reasoning and are left as exercises.
The following examples illustrate this procedure for finding and classifying relative extrema.
Example
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 2 ), find and classify all relative extrema.
Solution
We first find the relative extrema. The derivative is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥(1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 4𝑥 2 (−2𝑥)
= 8𝑥 − 16𝑥 3
= 8𝑥(1 − 2𝑥 2 ).
The equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 yields the critical numbers 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = − √2⁄2, and 𝑥 = √2⁄2. There are
no other critical numbers since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is defined for all x. We must therefore examine the sign of
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) on each of the intervals (−∞, − √2⁄2)(− √2⁄2 , 0), and (√2⁄2 , ∞). To do so we simply
select a convenient number t in each interval and examine the sign of 𝑓 ′ (𝑡). The results of doing
so appear in the following Table
Table
Interval Test number Value Sign of
I 𝑡∈𝐼 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)
√2
(−∞, − ) 𝑡 = −1 𝑓 ′ (−1) = 8 +
2
√2 1 1
(− , 0) 𝑡=− 𝑓 ′ (− 2) = −2 -
2 2
√2 1 1
(0, ) 𝑡= 𝑓 ′ (2) = 2 +
2 2
√2
( , ∞) 𝑡=1 𝑓 ′ (1) = −8 -
2
√2
From the results of Table and the First Derivative Test, we conclude that 𝑓 (− 2
) = 1 and
√2 √2
𝑓 ( 2 ) = 1 are relative maxima, and that 𝑓(0) = 0 is a relative minimum. Note that 𝑓 (− 2
) and
√2
𝑓 ( 2 ) are indeed absolute maxima, but that no absolute minimum exists.
Example
68
Find the rectangle with area 64 square inches for which the perimeter is a minimum.
Solution
If we let x and y denote the length and width of the rectangle, its perimeter is
𝑃 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦.
To express P as function of a single independent variable we use the information that area equals
64 in2 to obtain the auxiliary equation
𝑥𝑦 = 64
Which we can solve for y as
64
𝑦=
𝑥
Substituting this expression for y give:
64
𝑃 = 2𝑥 + 2 ( )
𝑥
So
128
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 +
𝑥
is the function for which we seek the absolute minimum value.
Before proceeding further we note that the domain of the function P is (0, ∞). That is because a
rectangle with area 64 in2 can have as its length any positive number x, as long as its width is
64
𝑦= 𝑥
. We are therefore seeking the minimum value of P on the interval (0, ∞).
To find the relative extrema for P on (0, ∞), we find the derivative
128
𝑃′ (𝑥) = 2 −
𝑥2
And note that the equation 𝑃′ (𝑥) = 0 gives
128
=2
𝑥2
or
128
𝑥2 = = 64
2
Which has solution 𝑥 = ±8. Thus, since 𝑃′ (𝑥) is defined for all 𝑥 > 0, the only critical number
for P in (0, ∞) is 𝑥 = 8.
By checking the sign of 𝑃′ (𝑥) on the intervals (0, 8) and (8, ∞), you can see that
P is decreasing on (0,8], and
P is increasing on (8, ∞].
69
From these observations we may conclude that the minimum value of P on (0, ∞) corresponds
to the relative minimum
128
𝑃(8) = 2(8) +
8
= 32
And that this value of the perimeter occurs when the dimensions of the rectangular are 𝑥 = 8
64
and 𝑦 = = 8. That is, the rectangle of area 64 in2 with the smallest perimeter is a square of
2
side 𝑠 = 8
4.4. Significant of the Second Derivative Concavity

Definition
Let f be continuous on an interval I and let 𝑓′(𝑥) exist for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 except possibly at endpoints.
We say that the graph of f is
a. Concave up on I if 𝑓′ is an increasing function on I, where defined;
b. Concave down on I if 𝑓′ is a decreasing function on I, where defined.
REMARK: We are defining concavity in analytic terms (that is, by use of 𝑓′(𝑥)) rather than
geometrically, in order quickly to develop the relationship between concavity and the second
derivative. A more geo metric approach would be to say that the graph of f is concave up on I
if, for each 𝑐 ∈ 𝐼, the graph “lies above the tangent at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐))”. In Exercise 4.1 you are asked
to show that this geometric condition implies that 𝑓"(𝑥) > 0 on I, the condition we have chosen
to use. A similar geometric definition can be given for concave down.
The following theorem shows that concavity is determined by the sign of the second derivative.
Theorem
Let f be continuous on I and let 𝑓"(𝑥) exist for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 except possibly at endpoints. Then the
graph of f is
(a) Concave up on I if 𝑓"(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 that are not endpoints, and
(b) Concave down on I if 𝑓"(𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 that are not endpoints.
𝑑
Proof: To prove part (a) we note that, since 𝑓"(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓′(𝑥)], if 𝑓"(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 that are
not endpoints, f’ is an increasing function on I, except possibly at endpoints. Thus, the graph of
f is concave up on I according to Definition . Similar reasoning prove part (b).
When the function f has a continuous derivative f’, the procedure for finding the largest interval
on which the graph of f is concave up or concave down:
(i) Find all numbers c for which 𝑓"(𝑥) = 0 or 𝑓"(𝑐) fails to exist.
70
(ii) Determine the sign of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) for x in each of the resulting intervals and apply Theorem.
As in the procedure for finding intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing, we must be careful
to also note numbers c at which 𝑓(𝑐) or 𝑓′(𝑐) fails to exist.
Point on the graph of f that separate arcs of opposite concavity, loosely speaking, are called
inflection points. Here is a precise definition of this term.
Definition
The point P = (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) is called an inflection point for the function f if f is continuous at
x = c and there exists a number ℎ > 0 so that the graph of f is either
(a) Concave down on [𝑐 − ℎ, 𝑐] and concave up on [𝑐, 𝑐 + ℎ], or
(b) Concave up on [𝑐 − ℎ, 𝑐] and concave down on [𝑐, 𝑐 + ℎ].
Example
Figure below show the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 on the interval I = [0, 2𝜋]. For this function we
have
𝑓′(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, and 𝑓"(𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
So 𝑓"(𝑥) = 0 if − sin 𝑥 = 0, which occurs on I at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝜋, and 𝑥 = 2𝜋. Since 𝑓" is continuous
on I, we check the concavity of the graph of f on the intervals [0, 𝜋] and [𝜋, 2𝜋] by checking the
sign of 𝑓"(𝑡) at a test number t in each of the intervals (0, 𝜋) and (𝜋, 2𝜋) and applying Theorem.
The result of doing so are recorded in the following Table
Table
Interval Test number 𝑓"(𝑡) Conclusion
𝜋 𝜋
[0, 𝜋] 𝑡= − sin ( ) = −1 Concave down
2 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
[𝜋, 2𝜋] 𝑡= − sin ( )=1 Concave up
2 2
Thus, the graph of f is concave down on [0, 𝜋] and concave up on [𝜋, 2𝜋]. This means that the
point (𝜋, 𝑓(𝜋)) = (𝜋, 0) is an inflection point, according to Definition.
Example
Determine the concavity of the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 2.
Solution
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 2 we have
𝑓′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 and 𝑓"(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 6.
71
1
Setting 𝑓"(𝑥) = 0 gives 12𝑥 2 = 6, or 𝑥 2 = 2.
The zeros of the second derivative 𝑓"(𝑥) are, therefore

√2 √2
𝑥1 = − 2
, and 𝑥2 = 2
.
There are no number x for which 𝑓"(𝑥) is undefined. Since 𝑓" is a continuous function (it’s
a polynomial), it must have constant sign on each of the intervals determined by its zero. We
may therefore determine the sign of these intervals by checking the sign of 𝑓"(𝑡) at a “test
number” t. The result of doing so appear in the following Table.
Table
Interval Test number Value Sign of Concavity
I 𝑡∈𝐼 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)
√2
(−∞, − ) 𝑡 = −1 𝑓"(−1) = 6 + Up
2
√2 √2
(− , ) 𝑡=0 𝑓"(0) = −6 - Down
2 2
√2
( 2 , ∞) 𝑡=1 𝑓"(1) = 6 + Up
We may conclude that the graph of f is

√2
(i) Concave up on (−∞, − 2
]
√2 √2
(ii) Concave down on [− 2 , 2 ]
√2
(iii) Concave up on [ 2 , ∞).
√2 √2 √2 3
Since the concavity of the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) change at (− 2
, 𝑓 (− 2 )) = (− , )
2 4
and at
√2 √2 √2 3
( 2 , 𝑓 ( 2 )) = ( 2 , 4), both of these points are inflection points.
REMARK: It is not necessary that 𝑓"(𝑐) = 0 at an inflection point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)). The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) =
|4 − 𝑥 2 | has inflection points (-2, 0) and (2, 0), even though 𝑓"(−2) and 𝑓"(2) fails to exist.
It is important to note that the point (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) need not be an inflection point for the graph of f,
even though 𝑓"(𝑥0 ) = 0 or 𝑓"(𝑥0 ) fails to exist. The following example shows that the concavity
can be the same on either side of such a point.
The Second Derivative Test for Extrema

There is a very relationship between concavity and the nature of relative extrema as the following
theorem shows.
72
Theorem (Second Derivative Test)
Let f differentiable on an open interval containing the critical number x = a, with 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0.
Suppose also that 𝑓"(𝑎) exists.
(i) If 𝑓"(𝑎) < 0, then 𝑓(𝑎) is a relative maximum.
(ii) If 𝑓"(𝑎) > 0, then 𝑓(𝑎) is a relative minimum.
(iii) If 𝑓"(𝑎) = 0, then 𝑓(𝑎) is no conclusion.
Proof
We prefer to give only an informal sketch of the argument here to avoid clouding the simple idea
with details.
In case (i), the condition 𝑓"(𝑎) < 0 may be interpreted as saying that the graph of f is concave
down near x = a. This means that 𝑓′ is a decreasing function near a. Since 𝑓′(𝑎) = 0. It follows
that 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 < 𝑎 and 𝑓′(𝑥) < 0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎. Thus, by the First Derivative Test, 𝑓(𝑎) is a
relative maximum. A similar argument applies for statement (ii).
In applying the Second Derivative Test be sure to note statement (iii) – if 𝑓"(𝑎) = 0. We obtain
no conclusion about whether 𝑓(𝑎) is a relative extremum. The following simple examples show
why.
Example
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 , and 𝑓"(𝑥) = 6𝑥. Thus 𝑥 = 0 is a critical number, and 𝑓"(0) = 0. For
this function, (0, 𝑓(0)) = (0,0) is neither a relative maximum nor a relative minimum.
Example
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 , 𝑓′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 , and 𝑓"(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 . Again, 𝑥 = 0 is a critical number, and 𝑓"(0) = 0.
For this function, (0, 𝑓(0)) = (0,0) is a relative minimum.
4.5. Curve Sketching I: Asymtotes

The preceding discussions of relative extrema and concavity are useful in sketching graphs of
functions on finite intervals when the graphs remain bounded. In order to sketch graphs of
functions on infinite intervals or where function values become unbounded, we need to discuss
briefly the notions of limits at infinity, infinite limits, and asymptotes.
Limits at Infinity
2𝑥+1
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥+2
is an example of a function with values approaching a constant as x
increases without bound. In fact, 𝑓(𝑥) approach the number 𝐿 = −2 as x becomes very large.
In this case we write
73
2𝑥 + 1
lim − = −2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥+2
and we refer to the line 𝑦 = −2 as a horizontal asymptotes.
More generally, we make the following informal definition.

Definition
The expression lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 means that that the values 𝑓(𝑥) approach the number L as x
𝑥→∞
increases without bound. The expression lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀 means that the values 𝑓(𝑥) approach the
𝑥→∞
number M as x decreases without bound.
An asymptote for the graph of f is just any straight line “approached” by the graph of f. Using
definition we may define a horizontal asymptote as follows.
Definition
The line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of the function f if either
𝐿 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) or 𝐿 = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
74
Example
𝑥+2 2
(a) lim = lim (1 + 𝑥) = (1 + 0) = 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞
𝑥+2
Thus, the line 𝑦 = 1 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
.
1
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 1/𝑥 −1 0−1
𝑥
(b) lim = lim ( ) (1/𝑥) = lim ( 1 ) = 0+1 = −1
𝑥→∞ 1+𝑥 𝑥→∞ 1+𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
+1
1−𝑥
Thus, the line 𝑦 = −1 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥.
Evaluating Limits at Infinity

To handle nontrivial examples of limits as 𝑥 → ∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞ we need to know the algebraic
properties of such limits. The following theorem states that limits at infinity have the same
algebraic properties as limits evaluated at real numbers. Its proof is left as Exercise.
Theorem
Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) both exist. Then
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
(i) lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥),

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
(ii) lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥), c constant,
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
(iii) lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)] . [ lim 𝑔(𝑥)],
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
(iv) lim [ ] = 𝑥→∞ , provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→∞
𝑥→∞
Theorem above also holds for limits as 𝑥 → −∞ Theorem 10 will be used together with the
following limits, which we state without proof, in evaluating limits at infinity.
Let 𝑟 = 𝑝/𝑞 be any positive rational number. Then
1
(i) lim =0 if q is even, and
𝑥→∞ 𝑟𝑥
1
(ii) lim =0 if q is odd.
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑟
75
Technique (Limits at Infinity): To evaluate limits of the form
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
lim or lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→−∞ 𝑔(𝑥)
where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials, divide both f(x) and g(x) by the highest power of x present.
Then use limits (1) and (2).
Although the technique is stated for rational functions only, it works equally as well when 𝑓(𝑥)
and 𝑔(𝑥) involve fractional powers of x. Also, note that there is no difficulty in assuring 𝑥 ≠ 0 in
executing this technique, since we may assume that x is large.
Example
Using the above technique we obtain the following limits.
Solution
7 4
3𝑥 2 +7𝑥−4 3+ − 2
𝑥 𝑥
(a) lim 1−𝑥 2 = lim 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ −1
𝑥2
1 1
3+7( lim )−4( lim 2 )
𝑥→∞𝑥 𝑥→∞𝑥
= 1
( lim 2 )−1
𝑥→∞𝑥
Infinite Limit
Definition
The statement lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ means that the values 𝑓(𝑥) increase without bound as x approaches
𝑥→∞
a from either direction. The statement lim+𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ means that the values 𝑓(𝑥) increase without
𝑥→𝑎
bound as x approaches a from the right. Similar meanings are attached to the statements
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, and
𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 +
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞.

𝑥→𝑎 −
Definition
We say that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if any of the infinite limits
in Definition above exists.
The technique for finding vertical asymptotes is to simply look for those numbers for which
the denominator of 𝑓(𝑥) becomes zero.
Example
1
For 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)3 note that if 𝑥 − 2 is positive, so is (𝑥 − 2)3 . But if (𝑥 − 2) is negative, (𝑥 − 2)3
is also. Thus,
76
(a) if x approaches 2 from the right, (𝑥 − 2)3 approaches
1
zero through positive values, so lim+ (𝑥−2)3 = ∞;
𝑥→2
(b) if, however, x approaches 2 from the left, (𝑥 − 2)3 is
negative, so (𝑥 − 2)3 approaches zero through negative
values. Thus
1
lim = −∞.
𝑥→2− (𝑥−2)3
The graph of f has a vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 2.
Example 5
𝑥2
Find all vertical asymptotes for the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = and determine the corresponding limits.
4−𝑥 2
Solution
The denominator can be factored as follows:
𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = = .
4 − 𝑥 2 (2 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥)
The denominator therefore equals zero for 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2. These numbers are candidates for
vertical asymptotes. To find the four corresponding one-sided limits, we must determine the sign
of each of the factors of f. This information is easily obtained by use of a marked number line.
𝑥2
Since the numerator of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4−𝑥 2 approaches 4 and the denominator approaches zero as
𝑥 → ±2, the one-sided limits at 𝑥 → ±2 are all infinite. We have
77
𝑥2 𝑥2
lim− 4−𝑥2 = −∞, lim+ 4−𝑥2 = ∞,
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑥2 𝑥2
lim = ∞, and lim = −∞.
𝑥→2− 4−𝑥 2 𝑥→2+ 4−𝑥 2
The vertical asymptotes are 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2.
4.6. Curve Sketching II: Summary of Techniques

Sections 1-5 0f this chapter have addressed ways in which information about limits and
derivatives can be used to identify certain properties of the graph of a function. Our purpose here
is to summarize these and other ideas that one should use in sketching the graph of a function.
The goal in mastering these techniques is to become able to determine quickly a function’s
behavior without having to develop a precise graph.
To plot the graph of a function f.

(1) Determine the domain and, if possible, the range.
(2) If possible, locate the zeros by solving the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
(3) Locate any vertical or horizontal asymptotes (Section 4.5).
(4) Find all critical numbers, classify the extrema, and determine whether f is increasing on the
resulting intervals (Section 4.2 and 4.3).
(5) Determine the concavity and locate the inflection points (Section 4.4).
(6) Calculate the values of the function at a few convenient numbers and locate the
corresponding un the graph. Then sketch in the graph according to the above information.
Example
78
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 24𝑥 2 + 20.
Solution
Following the above outline we note the following.
(1) Since f is a polynomial, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for all x.
(2) The range of the polynomial is not clear from its equation, so we skip this step.
(3) Since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ there are no horizontal asymptotes. There are no vertical asymptotes
𝑥→+∞
because 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for all x.
(4) The first derivative is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 48𝑥.
Setting 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 gives
4𝑥 3 − 48𝑥 = 4𝑥(𝑥 2 − 12) = 0
Which has solutions 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = ±√12 = ±2√3. These are the only critical numbers since
𝑓′(𝑥) is defined for all x.
The second derivative is
𝑓"(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 48
so
𝑓"(−2√3) = 12(−2√3 )2 − 48 = 96 > 0,

𝑓"(0) = −48 < 0,
𝑓"(2√3) = 12(2√3 )2 − 48 = 96 > 0.

Thus, the second derivative test shows that f has a relative maximum at
(0, 𝑓(0)) = (0, 20)
And relative minima at
(−2√3, 𝑓(−2√3)) = (−2√3, −124)
and
(2√3, 𝑓(2√3)) = (2√3, −124).
As a result, f is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, −2√3] and [0, 2√3] and incresing on the
intervals [−2√3, 0] and [2√3, ∞) as you can verify.
(5) Setting 𝑓"(x) = 12𝑥 2 − 48 = 0 gives 𝑥 = ±2. Checking the sign of f”(x) on the resulting
intervals shows that the graph of f is
concave up on (−∞, −2] and [2, ∞),
concave down on [-2,2].
Thus, the points (−2, 𝑓(−2)) = (−2, −60) and (2, 𝑓(2)) = (2, −60) are inflection points.
(6) The graph of f is sketched in Figure below.
79
Example
𝑥
Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
1−𝑥 2
Solution
Following the outline stated above, we find that:
(1) The domain of f is all numbers except 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1. That is because the zeros of the
denominator are 𝑥 = ±1. The range is all real numbers. To see this note that 𝑓(0) = 0, but
that 𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinitely large and positive as x increases toward 1. Similarly, as x
decreases from 0 toward -1, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinitely large and negative.
(2) The equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 has the single solution 𝑥 = 0.
(3) Since the denominator approaches zero as x approaches 1 or -1, but the numerator does
not, there are vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = ±1. The line 𝑦 = 0 (i.e. the x-axis) is a horizontal
asymptote, since
1
𝑥 0
lim ( ) = lim ( 𝑥 ) = = 0.
𝑥→±∞ 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑥→±∞ 1 0−1
− 1
𝑥2
(4) To find the critical numbers we use the equation
𝑑 1 + 𝑥2 2𝑥(1 − 𝑥 2 )2 − (1 + 𝑥 2 )(2)(1 − 𝑥 2 )(−2𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [ ] =
𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )4
3
2𝑥 + 6𝑥
=
(1 − 𝑥 2 )3
2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3)
=
(1 − 𝑥 2 )3
80
the candidate for an inflection point is 𝑥 = 0(𝑓"(0) = 0). We note also that f”(x) is undefined
for 𝑥 = ±1. The sign of f”(x) on each of the resulting intervals can be obtained from Figure
6.2, which records the sign of each of the factors 2x, 𝑥 2 + 3, and (1 − 𝑥 2 )3 .
From the sign of f”(x) we conclude that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is concave up on (−∞, −1) and
[0, 1) and concave down on (−1, 0] and (1, ∞).
The point (0, 𝑓(0)) = (0,0) is an inflection point.

(5) Since 𝑓(−2) = 2/3, 𝑓(0) = 0, and 𝑓(2) = −2/3, the points (−2, 2/3), (0, 0), and (2, −2/3)
are on the graph. The graph is sketched in Figure below.
4.7. Extrema on Closed Bounded Intervals; Max-Min Problems
81
Many applications of the derivative involve finding the (absolute) maximum or minimum value
of a continuous function f on a closed bounded interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. We shall discuss several examples
of this problem later in this section. We begin, however, by summarizing the relevant information
that we have developed up to this point.
1. If f is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], its maximum and minimum values on [𝑎, 𝑏] both exist (Theorem 1).
These are the values M and m, respectively, for which
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for all for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], and
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑚 for all for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
(Definition ).
2. If the value 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum or minimum value of f on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) is not an
endpoint, then either
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0, or else 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) fails to exist (1)
(Extreme Value Theorem). The number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) satisfying one of the two conditions in line
(1) are called the critical numbers for f on [𝑎, 𝑏].
(Definition ).
From these two observations we may conclude that the maximum and minimum values of a
continuous function f on a closed finite interval [𝑎, 𝑏] exist and occur either at critical numbers or
at endpoints of the interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
This observation gives the following procedure.
Procedure for Finding the Maximum and Minimum Values of a Continuous Function
f on a Closed Finite Interval [𝑎, 𝑏]:
1. Find all numbers 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) for which either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) does not exist.
(These are the critical numbers.)
2. Compute 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏), and all values 𝑓(𝑐)where c is a critical number for f in
(𝑎, 𝑏). (That is, check 𝑓(𝑥) at the endpoints and at all critical numbers.)
3. Select the largest and smallest of the values computed in Step 2. These are the
maximum and minimum values, respectively.
Absolute Versus Relative Extrema

Before illustrating this technique we again note the distinction between finding the absolute
extrema for f on [𝑎, 𝑏] and finding the relative extrema for f as done in Section C.
If f is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑐) is an absolute extremum (that is, the absolute maximum
or minimum) for f on [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓(𝑐) will also be a relative extremum for f if 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Note,
however, that
(i) a relative extremum for f on [𝑎, 𝑏] need not be an absolute extremum for f on [𝑎, 𝑏];
(ii) an absolute extremum for f on [𝑎, 𝑏] need not be a relative extremum because the absolute
extremum may occur ar an endpoint. (Such extrema are called endpoint extrema.)
82
Figure below illustrates both point (i) and point (ii).
Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 on the interval [−2, 2] and the
corresponding numbers x.
Solution
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 is a polynomial, we know that f is continuous on [−2, 2]. We have
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3,
so setting 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 gives the equation
3𝑥 2 − 3 = 0,
Which has solutions 𝑥 = ±1. There are no numbers x for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) undefined. The critical
numbers are, therefore, 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1. The values of f at the critical numbers and endpoints
are as follows:
𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 − 3(−2) = −2 (endpoint)
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1) = 2 (critical number)
𝑓(1) = (1)3 − 3(1) = −2 (critical number)
𝑓(2) = (2)3 − 3(2) = 2 (endpoint)
Thus, the maximum values of f on [−2, 2] is 2, which occurs both at 𝑥 = −1 and at 𝑥 = 2. The
minimum is -2, which occurs both at 𝑥 = −2 and at 𝑥 = 1.
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 appears in Figure below.
83
Applied Maximum-Minimum Problems
Procedure for Solving Applied Max-Min Problems

(Formulation)
1. Assign letter names to all variables and, if possible, draw a sketch showing all variables
and constants in the problem.
2. Indentify the variable for which the extremum is sought. Find an equation for this
variable in terms of other variables and constants (principal equation).
3. Find any other equation involving the given variables and constants (auxiliary
equations).
(Mathematical Solution)
4. Use auxiliary equation(s) to substitute for variable(s) in the principal equation until it
expresses the variable of interest as a function of a single independent variable.
5. Determine the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] on which the function in Step 4 is defined.
84
6. Find the maximum or minimum value for the function on [𝑎, 𝑏] by the technique
described earlier in this section.
(Interpretation)
The remaining pages of this section consist of examples of problems solved by this
procedure. While they are obviously contrived, these examples and the exercises at the end of
the section provide a “laboratory” setting in which you can gain experience with the several steps
in problem solving outlined above.
Example
Find two non negative numbers whose sum is 10 and the sum of whose squares is a maximum.
Solution:
Let x and y be the two numbers and let S be the desired sum. We want to maximize
𝑆 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 (principal equation) (2)
subject to the condition that
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10 (auxiliary equation). (3)
To eliminate the variable y in equation (2), we solve equation (3) for y to obtain
𝑦 = 10 − 𝑥
And substitute into equation (2), which gives
𝑆(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + (10 − 𝑥)2 .
Equation (3) together with the fact that x and y are nonnegative imply that
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10.
We therefore seek the maximum value of the function S on the interval [0,10].
Setting 𝑆 ′ (𝑥) = 0 gives the equation
𝑆 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2(10 − 𝑥) = 0,
so
𝑥 = 5.
Since 𝑆 ′ (𝑥) is defined for all 𝑥 ∈ [0,10], the critical number in (0,10) is 𝑥 = 5. The maximum value
of S will therefore occur among the following values:
𝑆(0) = 02 + 102 = 100 (endpoint)
85
𝑆(5) = 52 + 52 = 5 (critical number)
𝑆(10) = 102 + 02 = 100 (endpoint)
The maximum occurs at the endpoints 0 and 10, both of which give the solution as the pair of
numbers 0 and 10.
Example
An open box is to be made from a square piece of cardboard measuring 12 inches on a side by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the sides as in Figure below. Find the
dimensions for which the volume of the resulting box is a maximum.
Solution
The volume of the box is
𝑉 =𝑙∙𝑤∙ℎ
where 𝑙 = length, 𝑤 = width, and ℎ = height. If we let x denote the length (and width) of the
square cut from each corner, the dimensions of the box can be expressed in terms of x as
𝑙 = 12 − 2𝑥,
𝑤 = 12 − 2𝑥,
ℎ = 𝑥.
The volume may now be expressed as a function of x:
𝑉(𝑥) = (12 − 2𝑥)(12 − 2𝑥)(𝑥)
= 4𝑥 3 − 48𝑥 2 + 144𝑥
12
Since the side of the piece cut from a corner can be no longer than 2
= 6 inches, the variable x
is restricted to the closed interval [0,6].
86
The derivative for V is
𝑉 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 96𝑥 + 144
= 12(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12)
= 12(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 6)
so the equation 𝑉 ′ (𝑥) = 0 gives the single critical number 𝑐 = 2 in the interval (0,6). Since
𝑉(0) = 0 (endpoint)
𝑉(12) = 128, (critical number)
And
𝑉(6) = 0, (endpoint)
The maximum volume of 128 𝑖𝑛3 occurs when 𝑥 = 2, which corresponds to the dimensions 𝑙 =
12 − 2(2) = 8 inches, 𝑤 = 8 inches and ℎ = 𝑥 = 2 inches.
Example
A water trough is to be constructed from three metal sheets 1 meter wide and 6 meters long plus
end panels in the shape of trapezoids. Find the angle at which the long panels should be joined
so as to provide a trough of maximum volume
Solution
Consider the end view as shown in Figure. Let 𝜃 be the angle between the side panel and the
vertical, h the height, and a the length of the side of the triangle opposite the angle 𝜃.
Then
ℎ = cos 𝜃, and 𝑎 = sin 𝜃.
The end panel is a trapezoid with small base 𝑏 = 1 and large base 𝐵 = 1 + 2𝑎. The volune of the
trough is therefore
1
𝑉 = (𝐵 + 𝑏) ∙ ℎ ∙ 6
2
1
= [(1 + 2𝑎) + 1] ∙ ℎ ∙ 6
2
87
= 6(1 + sin 𝜃) cos 𝜃.
Clearly 𝜃 must lie within the interval [0, 𝜋⁄2]. Since V is expressed as a function of 𝜃 alone, we
may proceed to find the critical numbers for 𝜃:
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝜃
= −6 sin 𝜃 + 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= −6 sin 𝜃 + 6(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

= −12 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 6 sin 𝜃 + 6
= −6(2 sin 𝜃 − 1)(sin 𝜃 + 1).
The equation 𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝜃 = 0 therefore yields two critical numbers since
1 𝜋
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 1 = 0 implies sin 𝜃 = 2 , or 𝜃 = 6 .
and
𝜋
sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0 implies sin 𝜃 = −1, or 𝜃 = − .
2
𝜋 𝜋
Since 𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝜃 is defined for all 𝜃, and the critical number 𝜃 = − does not lie within (0, ), the
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
only critical number for 𝜃 in (0, ) is 𝜃 = . The maximum value for V must lie among the numbers
2 6
𝑉(0) = 6(1 + 0) = 6 (endpoint)

𝜋 1 √3 9√ 3
𝑉 ( 6 ) = 6 (1 + 2) ( 2 ) = 2
≈ 7.79 (critical number)
𝜋
𝑉 ( ) = 6(1 + 1)(0) = 0 (endpoint)
2
The angle corresponding to the maximum volume is therefore 𝜃 = 𝜋⁄6 = 30𝑜 .

Example
Find the right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 10
cm.
Solution
Figure below shows the cylinder of radius r and height h with edges touching the sphere.
The equation for its volume is
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ. (4)
Since the cross section of the sphere in the x y-plane is a circle of radius 10, it has equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 102 (5)
88
Finally, since the edges of the cylinder touch the sphere, we have
𝑟=𝑥 (6)
and
ℎ = 2𝑦. (7)
Substituting in equation (4) for r and h from equations (6) and (7) gives
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 (2𝑦) = 2𝜋𝑥 2 𝑦. (8)
Writing equation (5) in the form 𝑥 2 = 100 − 𝑦 2 and substituting for 𝑥 2 in equation (8) then gives
volume as a function of y alone:
𝑉(𝑦) = 2𝜋(100 − 𝑦 2 )𝑦 = 2𝜋(100𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ), 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 10.
The derivative is
𝑉 ′ (𝑦) = 2𝜋(100 − 3𝑦 2 )
10
so the equation 𝑉 ′ (𝑦) = 0 gives 3𝑦 2 = 10, or 𝑦 = . This is the only critical number for V. Since
√3
0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 10, checking 𝑉(𝑦) at the critical number and endpoints gives
𝑉(0) = 2𝜋(100.0 − 03 ) = 0 (endpoint)
10 10 10 3 4000𝜋
𝑉 ( 3) = 2𝜋 [10 ( 3) − ( 3) ] = 3√3
(critical number)
√ √ √
𝑉(10) = 2𝜋(100.10 − 103 ) = 0. (endpoint)

4000𝜋 4000𝜋√3
The maximum volume of 3√3
= 9
therefore corresponds to the cylinder of radius
10√6 20 20√3
𝑟 = 𝑥 = √100 − 𝑦 2 = 3
and height ℎ = 2𝑦 = = .
√3 3
89
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Often one encounters problems in which two or more variables are functions of time. For
example, as an ice cube melts, its volume, its weight, and each of its dimensions change
continuously as time passes. The objective of this section is to determine how to calculate and
compare the rates at which the variables in such a problem are changing.
If f is a function of t = time, then the average rate of change in f from time t to time t + h is
given by the quotient
f (t + h) − f (t ) change in f
=
h change in time
We define the instantaneous rate of change of f to be the limiting value of the average rate of
change from time t to time t + h as h → 0, that is,
rate of change of  f (t + h) − f (t )
  = lim
 f at time t  h →0 h
If this limit exists, the right side of the equation is the derivative, that is, we have
rate of change of 
  = f ' (t )
 f at time t 
In the other words, the derivative f ' is the (instantaneous) rate of change of the function
f at time t
Example
For the function f (t ) = sin t the average rate of change for the interval  1 , 1 
 4 2 
Is
   
sin   − sin   1 − 2
f
=   4 =
2 2 = 4 − 2 2  1.17,
t 1 1 1
−
2 4 4
1
While the instantaneous rate of change at t = is
4
     2
f '   =  cos  =  2.22
4 4 2
90
We have already encountered such rates in the position/velocity problem. There v (t ) was
defined as the rate of change of position, s(t ), per unit time. It was shown that v(t ) = s' (t ) when
s was differentiable.
Related rate problems

When two or more differentiable functions of time are related by a single equation, we can often
obtain the relationship between their respective rates of change by differentiating both sides of
that equation with respect to t . In so doing we are making use of the fact that the equation f = g
means that f and g are the same function, since the equation is assumed true for all values of
t. We may therefore conclude that f ' = g ' , since we have merely differentiated two different
forms for the same function. Problems of this general type are referred to as related rate
problems.
Example
The function f and g are related by the equation
f (t ) = 3g (t ) + 10, −   t  
2
Find the rate at which the function f is changing at t = 4 if g (4) = 2 and g ' (4) = −5
Solution:
Using the Chain Rule we obtain
f ' (t ) = 3.2 g (t ).g ' (t )
= 6 g (t ) g ' (t ).
Substituting t = 4, g (4) = 2 and g ' (4) = −5 then give the rate
f ' (4) = 6.(2)(−5) = 60
Example
A balloon in the shape of a sphere is being inflated so that the volume is increasing by 100
cubic centimeters per second. At what rate is the radius increasing when the radius is 9 cm?
Solution:
We let V = volume, r = radius, and t =time. We know that
4 3
V = r
3
We assume that both V and r are differentiable functions of t. then
91
dV dr
= 4r 2 . ,
dt dt
so,
dr 1 dV
= . .
dt 4r 2 dt
dV
We are given that = 100 cm3/s. when r = 9 cm,
dt
dr 1
= .100 cm 3 / s
dt 4 (9 cm) 2
25
=  .098 cm / s
81
D. Questions
1. The maximum or minimum value of f on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] occurs at the number c in each
exercise, (a) verify that f’(c) = 0, (b) determine by inspection whether f (c) is the maximum
or minimum value of f on [𝑎, 𝑏], and (c) sketch the graph of y = f (x) for x  [𝑎, 𝑏].
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
𝜋
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥 + )
4
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝜋𝑥)
1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥2
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − sec 𝑥
2. Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1. does the Mean Value Theorem apply for f
on [−1, 1] ? why or why not?
1
4. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3 is differentiable on the open interval (0, 3), yet the Mean Value
Theorem does not apply on [0, 3]. Why?
Verify that the given function satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem on
the stated interval,
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 7, x  [−1, 5]
2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥, x  [0, 4]
𝜋
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin 2𝑥, x  [0, ]
2
1
d. 𝑦 = (𝑥−2)2 , x  [3, 5]
92
5. Show that if f satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem on [a, b] and |𝑓 ′ (𝑥)| ≤
𝑀 for all x  (𝑎, 𝑏) then |𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)| ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎).
6. Find the largest intervals on which the function is (a) increasing and (b) decreasing. Use
this information to sketch a rough graph of the function.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
4 − 𝑥2 , −∞<𝑥 ≤1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 + 2, 1<𝑥<∞
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 2|
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2
1
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥2
7. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 6 is decreasing only on the interval [0, 3]. Find a.
8. Find the largest intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing. Find all relative extrema
for f. Use this information in sketching the graph of f.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 − (𝑥 − 2)2
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = |4 − 𝑥 2 |
𝜋
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥 4 ) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
9. Find all relative extrema for f.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 7
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥2
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = |sin 𝑥|
e. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 7 has relative extrema at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −3
a. Find a and b.
b. Clasify the extrema (as relative maxima or minima).
10. The function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 + 7 has critical number at 𝑥 = 0. Find a.
11. Determine the largest intervals on which the graph of f is concave up or concave down.
Find any inflection points. Use this information to sketch the graph of f.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = |1 − 𝑥 2 |
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)3
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2
12. Determine whether f has extremum at the given value of x, using either the First or Second
Derivative Test.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 𝜋⁄2
2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 1
𝑥−1
c. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥+1 , 𝑥 = 1
d. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = √𝑥 3 − 4𝑥, 𝑥 = 2
13. Find the indicated limits.
93
3𝑥 2 +2
a. lim
𝑥→∞ 10𝑥 2 −3𝑥
1 5
b. lim (𝑥)
𝑥→∞
c. lim 𝑥 −1⁄3
𝑥→−∞
sin 𝑥
d. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
𝑥 2 |2+𝑥 2 |
e. lim
𝑥→∞ 4−𝑥 4
√𝑥−1
f. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
|𝑥|
g. lim−
𝑥→0 𝑥
14. Find the horizontal asymptotes foe the given functions.
1
a. 𝑦 = 1+𝑥
2𝑥 2
b. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +1
c. A formal way of saying lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is the following: “Given 𝜖 > 0 there is an integer N
𝑥→∞
so that if 𝑥 > 𝑁 then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖.” Use this definition to prove that
1
i. lim = 0,
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
3𝑥+1
ii. lim = 3,
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
sin 𝑥
iii. lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥+2
d. The formal way to say that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ is: “Given 𝑁 > 0 there exists a number 𝛿 > 0 so
𝑥→𝑎
that if |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, then 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑁.” Use this definition to prove that
1
i. lim = ∞,
𝑥→0 |𝑥|
1
ii. lim = ∞,
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
e. lim |tan 𝑥| = ∞.
𝑥→𝜋⁄2
15. Sketch the graph of f following the outline of this section.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8
𝑥+4
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−4
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = |4 − 𝑥 2 |
𝑥
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥+1)2
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
16. Find the numbers b and c if the function f ( x) = x 2 + bx + c has minimum value f (3) = −7
on the interval [0,5]
17. The sum of two nonnegative numbers is 36. Find these numbers if the first plus the square
of the second is
a. A maximum
b. A minimum
18. Find the minimum and maximum values of the slopes of the lines tangent to the graph
94
f ( x) = x 3 − 9 x 2 + 7 x − 6, 1  x  4,
And the points where these slopes occur
19. A spherical balloon is being inflated so that the radius is increasing at a rate of 3 cm/s.
Find the rate at which the volume is increasing when r = 10 cm.
References
[1] Bartle, G, Robert. 1982. Introduction to Real Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
[2] Berkey, D. Dennis.1988. Calculus 2nd Edition. New York:Saunders College.
[3] Chotim, M. 2004. Kalkulus 1, Semarang: FMIPA UNNES.
[4] Leitold, I.1981. Calculus with Analitic Geometry. New York:Harper and Row.
[5] Purcell, E. J & Varberg, D.1984. Kalkulus dan Geometri Analitik(terjemahan oleh I Nyoman
S, Bana Karta S, dan Rawuh) jilid 1. Jakarta: Erlangga.
95

Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial BAHAN AJAR DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS P MAT 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial Bahan Ajar Kalkulus Diferensial BAHAN AJAR DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS P MAT 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

KEMENTERIAN RISET, TEKNOLOGI DAN PENDIDIKAN TINGGI

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG (UNNES)

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

Semarang, 16 August 2022

Dr. Mulyono, M.Si. Dr. Kristina Wijayanti, M.S.

This handout is intended as a beginning handbook for students in Mathematics

Course Learning Outcomes

CHAPTER I PRE CALCULUS CONCEPTS

CHAPTER II LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

CHAPTER III DERIVATIVES

CHAPTER IV APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVES

4.2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions 63

(v) c > 0, │x│≥ c ⟺ x ≤ c or x ≥ c

1.2. The Coordinate Plane, Distance, and Circle

1.3. Linear Equations

defined by the following equations:

1.5. Trigonometric Function

exists , is the limiting position of the secant line through

The slope of tangent is therefore m = lim 4 + ℎ = 4.

The slope of the tangent at (1, 2) is therefore m = lim (ℎ2 + 3ℎ + 6) = 6.

2.2. Limits of Functions

means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by choosing x sufficiently

in our work on trigonometric functions.

cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by choosing x sufficiently close to a.

by choosing x sufficiently close to a.

It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < δ then |(2𝑥 + 1) − 7| < ε.

|sin(𝑥)| ≤ |𝑥| -∞ < x< ∞

2. If a is an element in ℝ then lim 𝑥 = a.

Thus |𝐿 − 𝑀| < ε , ∀𝜀 > 0. Therefore L = M.

Let c be any number.

Choose δ = min { δ1 , δ2 }.It follows that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then

So, if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| < ε.

2. Let ε > 0 be given.

Hence 0< |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ then |𝑐𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐𝐿| < ε.

3. Take any ε > 0.

Thus │f(x)│ < │L│ + 1 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎|< δ1

Choose δ = min{ δ1, δ2, δ3 }

Thus lim f( 𝑥)g(x) = LM

Let ε > 0 be given.

2. lim f(x)n = (lim f(x))n = 𝐿𝑛

The Pinching Theorem

L – ε < g(x) < ε + L whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ1.

– ε < h(x) – L < ε or L – ε < h(x) < ε + L whenever 0<|𝑥 − 𝑎|<δ2.

2.4. One Sided Limit

function f whose graph is shown in figure below.

desired by choosing x on the right side of a and sufficiently close to a.

desired by choosing x on the left side of a and sufficiently close to a.

may write, however, that lim √𝑥 = 0.

particular, lim+⟦𝑥⟧ = 2 ; lim−⟦𝑥⟧ = 1.

lim ⟦𝑥⟧ = -3; lim −⟦𝑥⟧ = -2.

a < x < a + δ then │f(x) - L│ < ε.

a – δ < x < a then │f(x) - M│< ε.

Prove that lim+ √𝑥 = 0!

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L if and only if both lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = L = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

If x < 1 then f(x) = 2- x2. Thus lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 2 − 𝑥 2 = 1.

Therefore lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1

If f is not continuous at x = a we say that f is discontinuous at x = a.

In other words, we add = 2 to the domain of f by defining the new function

. lim (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] (Definition of f +g)

= lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) (Theorem)

= f(a) + g(a) (Continuity of f, g at a)

lim (𝑐𝑓)(𝑥) = lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] (Definition of f +g)

= c lim 𝑓(𝑥)] (Theorem)