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Fabrication of PFI & Study on Improvement of Power Factor Correction

Techniques

Technical Report · April 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4198.9925

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Fabrication of PFI & Study on Improvement of
Power Factor Correction Techniques

Submitted by

Md. Johir Uddin

ID: EEEE110100072

Md. Fayz Ahmed

ID: EEEE110100065

Tahirul Islam
ID: EEEE110200079

Supervised by

Ashraful Arefin
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

April 2014

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh
 Page |1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 About Power Factor:

The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power
flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number
between -1 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular
time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy
stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave
shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real
power. A negative power factor occurs when the device which is normally the load generates
power which then flows back towards the device which is normally considered the generator.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load
with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other
equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities
will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low
power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of
the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built
into power-consuming equipment.
 Page |2

1.2 Objective of Power Factor Improvement (PFI):

To reduce the utility bill, low power factor requires an increase in the electric utility‟s
generation and transmission capacity to handle the reactive power component caused by
inductive loads. Utilities usually charge a penalty fee to customers with power factors less
than 0.95. We can avoid this additional fee by increasing the power factor. Our electrical
systems branch capacity will increase. Uncorrected power factor will cause power losses in
our distribution system. We may experience voltage drops as power losses increase.
Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating and premature failure of motors and other
inductive equipment.

1.3 Benefits of Power Factor Improvement Techniques:

 Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power

factor improvement.
 Losses are low in static capacitors
 There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
 It can work in normal air conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
 Do not require a foundation for installation
 They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed

1.4 Outline of our project report:

 Chapter-1: Introduction
 Chapter-2: Components & Theory
 Chapter-3: Calculation of Power Factor
 Chapter-4: Implementation & Working Principle
 Chapter-5: Conclusion
 Page |3

Chapter 2

COMPONENTS & THEORY

2.1 Power Factor:

Power factor is the ratio between the KW (Kilo-Watts) and the KVA (Kilo-Volt Amperes)
drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the
apparent load power. It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into
useful work output and more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current
on the efficiency of the supply system.

All current flow will cause losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a
power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power
factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.

A poor power factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between the
voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic content or
distorted/discontinuous current waveform.

Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an
induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A
distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched
mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.

A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power
factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires an
change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable
improvement.

Many inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the
true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based on the cosine of the
angle between the voltage and current but does not take into account that the current
waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply.
 Page |4

2.2 Electrical Power Factor:

In general power is the capacity to do work. In electrical domain, electrical power is the
amount of electrical energy that can be transferred to some other form (heat, light etc) per
unit time. Mathematically it is the product of voltage drop across the element and electric
current flowing through it.

Considering first the DC circuits, having only DC voltage sources, the inductors and
capacitors behave as short circuit and open circuit respectively in steady state. Hence the
entire circuit behaves as resistive circuit and the entire electrical power is dissipated in the
form of heat. Here the voltage and current are in same phase and the total electrical power is
given by

Electrical power = Voltage across the element X Current through the element.

Its unit is Watt = Joule/sec.

Now coming to AC circuits, here both inductor and capacitor offer certain amount of
impedance given by,

1
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and capacitor stores
electrical energy in the form of electrostatic energy. Neither of them dissipates it. Further
there is a phase shift of 90-°between voltage and electric current. Hence when we consider
the entire circuit consisting of resistor, inductor and capacitor, there exists some phase
difference between the source voltage and current. The cosine of this phase difference is
called electrical power factor.

This factor 0 < cos 𝜑 < 1 represents the fraction of total power that is used to do the
useful work.

The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic energy or electrostatic
energy in inductor and capacitor respectively.
 Page |5

The total power in this case is,

Total electrical power = Voltage across the element X current through the element

This is called apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt Amp) and denoted by „S‟.

A fraction of this total electrical power which actually does our useful work is called as active
power. It is denoted as „P‟.

P = Active power = Total electrical power. cos 𝜑 and its unit is watt.

The other fraction of power is called reactive power. This does no useful work, but it is
required for the active work to be done. It is denoted by „Q‟ and mathematically is given by,

Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power. sin 𝜑 and its unit is VAR (Volt Amp Reactive).

This reactive power oscillates between source and load.

To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of triangle.

Fig 2.1: Power Factor Triangle

Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and electrical power factor is active power / apparent power.

2.3 Power Factor Improvement:

The term power factor comes into picture in AC circuits only. Mathematically it is cosine of
the phase difference between source voltage and current. It refers to the fraction of total
power (apparent power) which is utilized to do the useful work called active power.
 Page |6

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
cos 𝜑 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

2.4 Need for Power Factor Improvement:

Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. To transfer a given amount of power at certain voltage,
the electrical current is inversely proportional to cosφ. Hence higher the pf lower will be the
current flowing. A small current flow requires less cross sectional area of conductor and thus
it saves conductor and money.

• From above relation we saw having poor power factor increases the current flowing in
conductor and thus copper loss increases. Further large voltage drop occurs in alternator,
electrical transformer and transmission & distribution lines which gives very poor voltage
regulation.

• Further the KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power factor as,

Hence, the size and cost of machine also reduced. So, electrical power factor should be
maintained close to unity.

2.5 Capacitor Theory:

Any arrangement of two conductors separated by an electric insulator (i.e., dielectric) is a

capacitor. An electric charge deposited on one of the conductors induces an equal charge of
opposite polarity on the other conductor. As a result, an electric field exists between the two
conductor surfaces and there is a potential difference between them. The electric field
anywhere between the conductor surfaces is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charge Q on the conductors. And the potential difference V is also directly proportional to the
charge Q. The ratio Q/V is thus a constant for any electric field distribution as determined by
the shape of the conductors, the distance of separation, and the dielectric in which the field
 Page |7

exists. The ratio Q/V is called the capacitance, C, of a particular arrangement of conductors
and dielectric. Thus, C = Q/V, where Q and V are in units of coulomb and volt. C has the
units farad (F).
€r €0 A
𝐶= F
d

The simple theoretical expression for the capacitance value of a parallel plate capacitor is
where
A = plate area [m2] = cross section of electric field,
d = distance between plates [m],
_o = permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m and
_r = relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates [dimension less].
This calculated value is based on the assumption that the charge density on the plates is
uniformly distributed. In practice there is always a concentration of charge along the edges.
This charge concentration is at the sharp corners of the plates. Thus for a given voltage, the
actual total charge is always greater than the theoretical total charge.

2.6 Capacitor Bank:

A capacitor bank is simply an array of capacitors connected into a circuit. Capacitors are used to
control the voltage that is supplied to the customer by eliminating the voltage drop in the system
caused by inductive reactive loads.

A capacitor comes in the form of a case with insulating terminals on top. It comprises
individual capacitances which have limited maximum permissible voltages (e.g. 2250 V) and
are series-mounted in groups to obtain the required voltage withstand and parallel-mounted to
obtained the desired power rating.
 Page |8

Figure: Capacitor Bank

Figure: Diagram of Capacitor bank

 Page |9

There are two types of capacitors:

1. Those with no internal protection,

2. Those with internal protection: a fuse is combined with each individual capacitance.

2.7 Magnetic Contactor:

A magnetic contactor is a machine used to switch on a power remotely within a motor.

Contactors work by connecting directly with high current load devices, and current passes
through the electromagnet of the contactor, generating a magnetic field. This magnetic
field attracts the moving core of the contactor. The coil in the magnet draws in current
until the core is pulled into the coil. Contactors vary in size from being small enough to
carry in one hand to large devices approximately a meter long.

Figure: Magnetic Contactor

 P a g e | 10

How Magnetic Contactor Works:

A contactor is a machine that is used to switch on a power or control circuit remotely within a
motor. The activation of the contactor happens when a current or voltage lower than the
required amount is sent to the control input on the contactor. The contactor is active when
current passes through the electromagnet on the contactor which causes an electromagnetic
field to be produced drawing the moving and fixed contacts together. When the coil in the
contactor has no electrical charge the core of the electromagnet is moved by gravity back to
its starting position.

2.8 Fuse Operation:

In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as
a sacrificial device to provide over current protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its
essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through
it, interrupting the circuit that it connects. Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or
device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current. Fuses are an alternative to circuit
breakers.

A fuse interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is
prevented. Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular
circuits. Over current protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to
human life and property damage. The time and current operating characteristics of fuses are
chosen to provide adequate protection without needless interruption. Slow blow fuses are
designed to allow harmless short term currents over their rating while still interrupting a
sustained overload. Fuses are manufactured in a wide range of current and voltage ratings to
protect wiring systems and electrical equipment. Self-resetting fuses automatically restore the
circuit after the overload has cleared, and are useful in environments where a human
replacing a blown fuse would be difficult or impossible, for example in aerospace or nuclear
applications.
 P a g e | 11

Fig: Fuse Diagram Fig: Electrical Fuse

2.9 Control Fuse in PFI:

A fuse consists of a replaceable part (the fuse link) and a fuse holder. Examples of fuse
holders are shown in Fig. 1. The simplest fuse link is a length of wire. It is mounted by screw
connections in a holder which partly encloses it. When an over current or short-circuit current
 P a g e | 12

flows, the wire starts to melt and arcing commences at various positions along it. The arc
voltage causes the current to fall and once it has fallen to zero, the arcs are extinguished.

The larger the wire cross section, the larger is the current that the fuse link will carry without
operating. In the UK, fuses of this type are specified for use at voltages up to 250 V and
currents up to 100 A. They are known as semi-enclosed or rewire able fuses.

The most common fuse link is the cartridge type. This consists of a barrel (usually of
ceramic) containing one or more elements which are connected at each end to caps fitted over
the ends of the barrel. The arrangement is shown. If a high current breaking capacity is
required, the cartridge is filled with sand of high chemical purity and controlled grain size.
The entire fuse link is replaced after the fuse has operated and a fault has been disconnected.
Cartridge fuses are used for a much wider range of voltages and currents than semi-enclosed
fuses.

Fuse links can be divided into current-limiting and non-current-limiting types. A sand-filled
cartridge fuse link is of the current-limiting type; when it operates, it limits the peak current
to a value which is substantially lower than the prospective current. A non-current-limiting
fuse, such as a semi-enclosed fuse, does not limit the current significantly. The element
shown in Fig. 2 is a notched tape. Melting occurs first at the notches when an over current
flows and these results in a number of controlled arcs in series. The voltage across each arc
contributes to the total voltage across the fuse, and this total voltage results in the current
falling to zero. Because the number of arcs is limited, the fuse link voltage should not be high
enough to cause damage elsewhere in the circuit.

The characteristic development of current and voltage during the operation of a fuse is shown
in the function of the sand is to absorb energy from the arcs and to assist in quenching them;
when a high current is disconnected, the sand around the arcs is melted.
 P a g e | 13

Fig: Control Fuse

2.10 Current Transformer (CT):

A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of alternating electric currents.

Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)),
are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to apply
directly to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current
accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to
measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current
transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power
industry.
 P a g e | 14

Figure: Current Transformer

Theory of Current Transformer or CT:

A CT functions with the same basic working principle of electrical power transformer, as we
discussed earlier, but here is some difference. If a electrical power transformer or other
general purpose transformer, primary current varies with load or secondary current. In case of
CT, primary current is the system current and this primary current or system current
transforms to the CT secondary, hence secondary current or burden current depends upon
primary current of the current transformer.

In a power transformer, if load is disconnected, there will be only magnetizing current flows
in the primary. The primary of the power transformer takes current from the source
proportional to the load connected with secondary. But in case of CT, the primary is
connected in series with power line. So current through its primary is nothing but the current
flows through that power line. The primary current of the CT, hence does not depend upon
whether the load or burden is connected to the secondary or not or what is the impedance
value of burden. Generally CT has very few turns in primary where as secondary turns are
large in number. Say Np is number of turns in CT primary and Ip is the current through
primary. Hence the primary AT is equal to NpIp AT.
 P a g e | 15

If number of turns in secondary and secondary current in that current transformer are Ns and
Is respectively then Secondary AT is equal to NsIs AT.

In an ideal CT the primary AT is exactly is equal in magnitude to secondary AT.

So from the above statement it is clear that if a CT has one turn in primary and 400 turns in
secondary winding, if it has 400 A current in primary then it will have 1A in secondary
burden.
Thus the turn ratio of the CT is 400/1A

Error in Current Transformer or CT:

But in an actual CT, errors with which we are connected can best be considered through a
study of phasor diagram for a CT,

Is - Secondary Current

Es - Secondary induced emf

Ip - primary Current

Ep - primary induced emf

 P a g e | 16

KT - turns ratio = numbers of secondary turns/number of primary turns

Io - Excitation Current

Im - magnetizing component of Io

Iw - core loss component of Io

Φm - main flux.

Let us take flux as reference. EMF Es and Ep lags behind the flux by 90o. The magnitude of
the passers Es and Ep are proportional to secondary and primary turns. The excitation current
Io which is made up of two components Im and Iw.

The secondary current Io lags behind the secondary induced emf Es by an angle Φ s. The
secondary current is now transferred to the primary side by reversing Is and multiplied by the
turns ratio KT. The total current flows through the primary Ip is then vector sum of KT Is and
Io.

The Current Error or Ratio Error in Current Transformer or CT:

From above passer diagram it is clear that primary current Ip is not exactly equal to the
secondary current multiplied by turns ratio, i.e. KTIs. This difference is due to the primary
current is contributed by the core excitation current. The error in current transformer
introduced due to this difference is called current error of CT or sometimes Ratio Error in
Current Transformer.

2.11 Clamp Meter:

An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp meter, clamp-on
ammeter or tong tester.
 P a g e | 17

A clamp meter measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the conductors passing
through the probe, which depends on the phase relationship of the currents. Only one
conductor is normally passed through the probe. In particular if the clamp is closed around a
two-conductor cable carrying power to equipment, the same current flows down one
conductor and up the other; the meter correctly reads a net current of zero. As electrical
cables for equipment have both insulated conductors (and possibly an earth wire) bonded
together, clamp meters are often used with what is essentially a short extension cord with the
two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be placed around only one conductor of this
extension.

A relatively recent development was a multi-conductor clamp meter with several sensor coils
around the jaws of the clamp. This could be clamped around standard 2- or 3-conductor
single-phase cables to provide readout of the current flowing through the load with no need to
separate the conductors. It was claimed to be accurate with cables of certain specified types
for which it could be set, and usable but less accurate with others. However, there were some
comments that it did not give reliable readings and it was discontinued.

The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by
winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter reading divided by the
number of turns is the current>, with some loss of accuracy due to inductive effects.

Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a general
purpose multi meter.

It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate current
transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few mill amperes) with a current
transformer clamp is more difficult.
 P a g e | 18

Figure: Clamp Meter

2.12 Relay:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
 P a g e | 19

circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted
it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor
or other loads is called a contractor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Figure: PFC Relay

2.12.1: Relay Operation:

Power Factor Control Relay

Description: Microprocessor- based control relay for intelligent

 P a g e | 20

control of capacitor bank.

Simple Commissioning: By automatic identificaton of threshold
current(c/k value), phase
angle, connected capacitor stages and switching sequences.
Operator Overview: Through clear display of key momentary
values and operating parameter.
-- Power factor (cos Ø)
-- Apparent (RMS), active and reactive currents
-- 5th, 7th ,11th ,13th harmonic voltage content
-- Total Capacitive power required to meet target power factor
setting
Monitoring of Harmonic Levels: By continuous monitoring and
display of harmonic voltage
levels. In the event of harmonic levels exceeding programmable
limits, all capacitors will
be switched off through overcurrent alarm.
Prolongs Switchgear Life: The RM 9606 / RM 9612 counts, stores
and displays the number
of switching operations for each individual capacitor stage. An
alarm is triggered if the
switching counters exceed programmable limits.
Additional Protection for Capacitors: The RMS current monitoring
function provides
excellent protection for capacitor bank without harmonic filters,
especially when resonance
cause an increase in harmonic levels.
Intelligent Control for Increased Equipment Life:
-- Cyclic switching for capacitor stages of the same rating.
-- Accurate switching of capacitor stages prevents unnecessary
switchings for responsive
control.
-- Continuous optimisation of switching delay according to
required reactive current.
 P a g e | 21

Features:
-- Potential-free alarm contact.
-- Programmable overcurrent alarm threshold limit(from 1.05 to
3.0 x Irms).
-- Continuous monitoring for defective capacitor stages through
self adjustment of
control program.
-- Zero voltage and zero current tripping with alarm signal.
-- "Kinked" control curve characteristics avoid overcompensation
under light load.
-- Four-quadrant power control with LED display when active
power is generated into mains.
-- Manual/automatic operation with ability to switch each
individual capacitor stage ON or OFF.
-- Target power factor setting adjustable from 0.80 inductive to
0.95 capacitive in steps of 0.01.
-- Preset up to three fixed capacitor stages which will be excluded
from normal automatic operation.
-- Independent setting of capacitor swithcing time to match
discharge time of capacitor stages.
-- Suitable for current transformers with rated secondary current
of 1 A or 5 A.
Alarm Signals for:
-- Undercompensation
-- High harmonic levels
-- Overcurrent
-- Switching counters
-- Fault in voltage circuit (U = 0 alarm)
-- Fault in current circuit (I = 0 alarm)
-- Fault in capacitor stages (C = 0 alarm)
 P a g e | 22

2.12.2 Relay Technical Data:

Power supply
Mains voltage 230/400 VAC -15 % to +15%
Frequency 48 to 62 Hz
Power
9 VA of 0 resp. 13 VA of 12 switched-control contacts
consumption
Fuse Protection max. 4 A external required
Measurement input
Voltage path 100 VAC to 690 VAC +/- 10 %
Power Consumption: 0,5 VA
for current converters X/1 A to X/5 A (min. transformer current > 20
Voltage path
mA)
Power consumption: max. 1.8 VA bei 5 A transformer-nominal current
Output
12 Control contacts Relay contact, potential-free
Switching voltage: 380 VAC acc. to VDE0110 Group B, 250
VAC acc. to VDE0110 Group C
Total power supply: 2 x 5 A
Switching capacity: 1800 VA
1 Alarm signalling
250 VAC/ 4 A,potential-free, Closed on alarm
contacts

Input
1 Tariff Input for the selection of two separate control programs (e.g. HT/NT)

Interfaces (optional operating mode)

1 FRAKO For the connection to FRAKO Energy Management System, acc. to EN
Starkstrombus® 50170(P-Net) standard fieldbus, RS 485
Transmission speed: 76.8 kbit/s
1 RS 232-Interface Via RS232-Adapter (Option) direct connection to the PC
Transmission speed: 19200 Baud
 P a g e | 23

If a network interruption in the voltage path of more than 15 ms occurs,

Undervoltage trip the active capacitor stages are switched out; when power is restored the
required number of stages is switched in again.
Operating elements 4 Membrane buttons
Display elements 18 Light emitting diode, 4 1/2-digit numeric display
Connection via connector strip (supplied)
Mechanical construction
Dimensions Front panel dimension: 144x144 mm (DIN 43700)
Control panel cut-out: 138x138 mm (DIN 43700)
Installation depth: 105 mm
Enclosure/Terminal IP53/20 (when using the sealing ring as an
Ingress Protection
accessory)
Protection class II acc. to VDE 0160, isolation group B (when using the
Version
isolated fastening screws as accessory)
Housing flame-adversely UL94-V0
Installation From the front panel by screw driver
Mounting position Optinal
Weight approx. 1.2 kg
Operating condition
Ambient
-25°C to +60°C acc. to DIN VDE 0660, Part 500 Abs.6.1.1.1
temperature
 P a g e | 24

Chapter 3

POWER FACTOR CALCULATION &

CORRECTION

3.1 Methods of Power Factor Improvements:

a) Capacitors: Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between
voltage and current. Since majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require some
amount of reactive power for them to function. This reactive power is provided by the
capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the load. They act as a source of local
reactive power and thus less reactive power flows through the line. Basically they reduces the
phase difference between the voltage and current.

b) Synchronous condenser: They are 3 phase synchronous motor with no load attached to its
shaft. The synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power factor
leading, lagging or unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive loads, synchronous
condenser is connected towards load side and is overexcited. This makes it behave like a
capacitor. It draws the lagging current from the supply or supplies the reactive power.

c) Phase advancer: This is an ac exciter mainly used to improve pf of induction motor. They
are mounted on shaft of the motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It
improves the power factor by providing the exciting ampere turns to produce required flux at
slip frequency. Further if ampere turns are increased, it can be made to operate at leading
power factor.

3.2 Power factor Calculation:

In power factor calculation, we measure the source voltage and current drawn using a
voltmeter and ammeter respectively. A wattmeter is used to get the active power.
 P a g e | 25

Now, we know P = VIcosφ watt

Hence we can get the electrical power factor.

Now we can calculate the reactive power Q = VIsinφ VAR

This reactive power can now be supplied from the capacitor installed in parallel with load in
local. Value of capacitor is calculated as per following formula:

IMPORTANT: In power factor improvement, the reactive power requirement by the load
does not change. It is just supplied by some device in local, thus reducing the burden on
source to provide the required reactive power.

3.3 How to calculate power factor correction:

You are about to begin calculating a Power Factor Correction. This allows you to calculate
apparent power, true power, reactive power and your phase angle. Consider the equation of a
right triangle. So to calculate the angle you need to know your Cosine, Sine and Tangent
laws. You also will need to know The Pythagorean Theorem ( c² = √(a² + b²) ) for calculating
the magnitudes of the sides of the triangle. You will also need to know what units each type
of power is in. Apparent power is measured in Volt-Amps. True power is measured in Watts
and your Reactive power is measured in the units called Volt-Amp-Reactive (VAR‟s). There
are several equations to calculate these and all will be covered in the article. You now have
the basis of what you are trying to calculate.
 P a g e | 26

Here 8 steps to calculate power factor corrections:

Steps:

Steps 1:

Calculate impedance. (Pretend as if impedance was in the same place as apparent

power in the picture above). So to find impedance you need to use the Pythagorean
Theorem c² = √ (a² + b²).
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Steps 2:

Therefore Impedance Total (represented as “Z”) is equal to Real Power squared plus
Reactive power squared and then take the square root of the answer.

 ( Z = √(60² + 60²) ). So if you enter that into your scientific calculator you will receive
an answer of 84.85Ω. ( Z = 84.85Ω ).
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Step 3:
Find your phase angle. So you now have your hypotenuse which is your impedance. You
also have your adjacent side which is your true power and you have your opposite side which
is your reactive power. So to find the angle you can use any the laws stated earlier. For
example we use the Tangent Law which is the opposite side divided by the adjacent side
(Reactive/True).

 You should have an equation that looks like this: (60/60 = 1)

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Step 4:

Take the inverse of the tangent and acquire your Phase Angle. The inverse tangent is a
button on your calculator. So you now take the inverse tangent of the equation in the previous
step and this will give you your phase angle. Your equation should look something like this:
tan ‾ ¹ (1) = Phase Angle. So your answer should be 45°.
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Step 5:
Calculate your total Current (Amps). Your current is in the units of amps also represented
as an “A”. The formula used for calculating current is Voltage divided by Impedance which
numerically looks like this: 120V/84.85Ω. You should now have an answer around 1.141A.
(120V/84.84Ω = 1.141A ).
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Step 6:
You must now calculate your apparent power which is represented as “S”. To calculate
apparent power you do not need to use the Pythagorean Theorem because your hypotenuse
was considered your impedance. Remembering that apparent power is in the units of Volt-
Amps we can calculate apparent power using the formula: Voltage squared divided by your
total impedance. Your equation should look like this: 120V²/84.85Ω. You should now get an
answer of 169.71VA. ( 120²/84.85 = 169.71 )
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Step 7:
You must now calculate your true power which is represented as “P”. To calculate true
power you must have found current which you did in step number four. True power which is
in the units of a Watt is calculated by multiplying your current squared (1.141²) by the
resistance (60Ω) in your circuit. You should get an answer of 78.11 watts. Your equation
should look like this: 1.141² x 60 = 78.11
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Step 8:
Calculate your Power Factor! To calculate your power factor you need the following
information: Watts and Volt-Amps. You have calculated this information in the previous
steps. Your wattage is equal to 78.11W and your Volt-Amps are equal to 169.71VA. The
formula for your power factor, also represented as Pf, is Watts divided by Volt-Amps. You
should have an equation that looks something like this: 78.11/169.71 = .460

 This can also be expressed as a percentage therefore you multiply .460 by 100 giving
you a power factor of 46%.
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Chapter 4

PROJECT CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION

4.1 Block Diagram:

Figure: Block Diagram of PFI

4.2 Working Principle:

Firstly we have measured the line current. Then connect the Current Transformer (CT) with
maximum load current. Now the PFI connect with three phase load line. When the current
Trans former through current to the relay after then relay get start. Normally relay and
magnetic contractor stay open connectivity. After relay working then the magnetic contractor
get closed with capacitor and connect it with load.
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When the load increased then at same way next capacitors will connect with load. If the load
is same then the connected capacitor will not disconnect. If the load value become decrease
then before, so connected load capacitor will disconnect and reconnect with leading load.

Thus during the whole time this process will continue depend on supply load.

4.3 Circuit Equipments:

Equipments Name: Quantity:

1. Relay 1 PC

2. HRC Fuse 12 PCs

3. Control Fuse 3 PCs

4. Magnetic Contactor 4 PCs

5. Capacitor (7.5, 5, 5, 2.5) µF 4 PCs

6. Current Transformer (C.T) (Ration-100:5) 1 PC

7. Cable Lugs Required amount

8. Cable as per Design

9. Steel Box 1 PC

10. Indicator Light 4 PCs

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4.5 Circuit Implementation:

We have designed our project by following diagram:

Figure-4.2: Circuit Diagram of Power factor Improvement and Controller

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4.6 Hardware Implementation:

4.6.1 Hardware Implementation at load test place:

Fig: Initial Status of PFI Fig: Internal Circuit Connection of PFI & Relay

Fig: Connect the PFI with Load Line Fig: Internal connection from load line
 P a g e | 38

Fig: After load conduct 5KVAR Fig: When load is more than 5KVAR

Fig: After Reduce the Load from line Fig: Relay Connection from CT
 P a g e | 39

Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

Power factor play an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation depends on this
factor. For instant, we know that;

Power in a Three Phase AC Circuit = P = √3 V x I CosФ

And Current in a Three Phase AC Circuits = I = P / (3 V x CosФ)

I ∝1 /CosФ….… (1)

Also,

Power in a Single Phase AC Circuits = P = V x I CosФ

And Current in a Three phase AC Circuits = I = P / (V x CosФ)

I ∝ 1/CosФ……… (2)

It is clear from both equations (1) an (2) that Current “I” is inversely proportional to CosФ
i.e. Power Factor. In other words, When Power Factor increases, Current Decreases, and
when Power Factor decreases, Current Increases.

Now, In case of Low Power Factor, Current will be increased, and this high current will
cause to the following disadvantages.

1.) Large Line Losses (Copper Losses):

We know that Line Losses is directly proportional to the squire of Current “I2”

Power Loss = I2xR i.e., the larger the current, the greater the line losses i.e. I>>Line Losses

In other words,

Power Loss = I2xR = 1/CosФ2 ….. Refer to Equation “I ∝ 1/CosФ”….… (1)

Thus, if Power factor = 0.8, then losses on this power factor =1/CosФ2 = 1/ 0.82 = 1.56 times
will be greater than losses on Unity power factor.
 P a g e | 40

2.) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments:

As we know that almost all Electrical Machinery (Transformer, Alternator, Switchgears etc)
rated in kVA. But, it is clear from the following formula that Power factor is inversely
proportional to the kVA i.e.

CosФ = kW / kVA

Therefore, The Lower the Power factor, the larger the kVA rating of Machines also, the
larger the kVA rating of Machines, The larger the Size of Machines and The Larger the size
of Machines, The Larger the Cost of machines.

3.) Greater Conductor Size and Cost:

In case of low power factor, current will be increased, thus, to transmit this high current, we
need the larger size of conductor. Also, the cost of large size of conductor will be increased.

4.) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop:

Voltage Drop = V = IZ.

Now in case of Low Power factor, Current will be increased. So the Larger the current, the
Larger the Voltage Drop.

Also Voltage Regulation = V.R = (VNo Load – VFull Load)/ VFull Load

In case of Low Power Factor (lagging Power factor) there would be large voltage drop which
cause low voltage regulation. Therefore, keeping Voltage drop in the particular limit, we need
to install Extra regulation equipments i.e. Voltage regulators.

5.) Low Efficiency:

In case of low Power Factor, there would be large voltage drop and large line losses and this
will cause the system or equipments efficiency too low. For instant, due to low power factor,
there would be large line losses; therefore, alternator needs high excitation, thus, generation
efficiency would be low.

6.) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor

Electrical Power supply Company imposes a penalty of power factor below 0.95 lagging in
Electric power bill. So you must improve Pf above 0.95.
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References:

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor
2. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/pdfs/mc60405.pdf
3. http://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-power-factor/
4. http://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Power-Factor-Correction
5. http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/how-to-protect-capacitor-banks
6. http://www.ask.com/question/how-does-a-magnetic-contactor-work
7. http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/fuses-principles-of-design-and-operation
8. http://www.electrical4u.com/current-transformer-ct-class-ratio-error-phase-angle-error-in-
current-transformer/
9. http://www.frako.com/index.php/en/power-factor-correction/low-voltage/9-nicht-
kategorisiert/458-emr-1100-sen
10. http://www.lange-me.com/pfc-pfcr.htm

11. http://www.electricaltechnology.org/2013/08/disadvantages-of-low-power-factor.html

12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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