BASIC FOODS

 Oils are generally liquid at room temperature while Fats are solid.
 Chemically both are called Lipids and have the same generic constituents
 Animal fats have predominantly saturated fatty acids while plants have generally more unsaturated
fatty acids
 Coconut and Palm Kernel oils are exceptions because both have saturated fatty acids.
 Only Animal Fats have Cholesterol but Plant Oils may be converted into cholesterol in the body.

Saturated Fatty Acids

- Have single bond (no double bonds) in the Carbon Chains
- Examples: Butter, Lard, Beef Tallow, Coconut oil, palm kernel oil
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Have one double bond in the carbon chains
- Examples: Olive oil, Canola oil, Peanut oil
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Have two or more double bonds in the carbon chain
- Corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, Omega-3 fatty acids: DHA and EPA
- Examples: Salmon, Mackerel

Classification of fats and oils

BY APPEARANCE:
 Visible Fats are those that are visually distinctive such as butter, beef tallow, coconut oil
 Invisible Fats are those that are indistinguishable unless separated by chemical means such as
avocado, egg yolk, lean meats
BY SOURCE:
 Animal sources butter, lard (pork), beef tallow or suet (beef), fish oils, fish liver oils, chicken fat
 Plant sources coconut oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil, soybean oil sesame oil, etc.

Fats and Oils: Nutritional Importance

 Fats and oils are concentrated source of energy, yielding 9kcal per gram
 Recommendations should NOT EXCEED 30% of the total caloric requirement
 Filipino’s consumption of fats and oils is low at 15g/day
 The Bicol Region has the highest intake of fats and oils – 23g/day (foods cooked with gata)
 The NCR and Central Luzon has high intakes at 19 grams and 18 grams per day
 Central Visayas has the lowest intakes with 8 grams per day (FNRI-DOST, 2010)
 Fats and oils carry the Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K
 Fats and oils insulate the body organs from extreme temperatures
 They are necessary to maintain cellular structures and are sources of essential fatty acids
 The essential fatty acids are converted to Prostaglandins substances necessary for the necessary for
the immune system
 They are components of membranes in living cells (Prostaglandins)
 Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids (EPA & DHA) are critical or important in the brain development of
infants
Chemical Composition
 Diglycerides and Monoglycerides
- When only 1 to 3 carbons of the glycerol molecule is esterified with a fatty acid, a monoglyceride is
produced
- When 2 of the 3 carbons are esterified, a diglyceride is produced
- When All carbons are esterified, we have Triglyceride
- Mono and diglycerides have significant function as emulsifiers because these molecules have a
hydrophilic end and the other end is hydrophobic

 Phospholipid
- Are combination of a lipid and phosphate group
- One of the carbons in the glycerol is attached to a phosphate replacing one fatty acids and
nitrogenous base
- The heterogenous base can be a choline as in lecithin
- Lecithin is the most abundant phospholipids of cell membranes
- Phospholipids are polar substances which means it has a distinct net positive charge or negative
charge
- This polarity is the effect of acidic phosphate group and the nitrogenous base

Physical Properties
 Physical structure – solid fat is composed of crystal structures of straight chain fatty acids suspended in
oil
 Solid Fat Index (sfi) – is the expression of the proportion of fat in crystalline form to the suspending
oils; more solid will result in high sfi
 Polumorphism
- An existence of a molecule in several forms in a single species
- If there are less molecular species, the crystals will be unstable and larger crystals will form, whreas if
there are more molecular species the resulting crystals will be smaller
 Plasticity – the property of fat that allows it be molded or pressed into various shapes without
breaking. This property is possible because of the presence of both solid and liquid fat
 Melting Point
- The temperature at which solid fat is changed to liquid and is unique for each type of fat/oil; the
ranges depend upon the solid fat index (SFI)
- Melting point increases as the number of carbons increases and as the number of double bonds
decreases
 Solidification temperature – the temperature range when a liquid fat is changed to dolid; it is always
lower than the melting point
 Solubility – natural fats are insoluble in water
 Density/Specific Gravity – in the mixture water and oil, oil floats to the surface; this is because oil is
lighter than water
 Surfactant Properties – the ability of fats to bridge water and oil molecules; a useful value in
emulsification
 Thermal stability – the ability of fat/oil to withstand heat without undergoing deterioration
 Smoke point
- The temperature at which fat deterioration is sufficient to produce bluish smoke
- smoke points are much lighter than boiling point of water
- when smoking oil is further heated, volatile products evolve which are capable of being ignited and
if more heat if applied more volatile substances are vaporized which can sustain sombustion
 - frying temperatures are between 170c to 195c; this permits rapids cooking, surface drying, and
browning reaction resulting in the distinctive color and flavor of fried food
- smoke points of fats and oils for frying are beyond frying temperatures

4 ways by which oils decompose during heating; all can cause lowering of the smoke point
1. Pyrolysis (thermal breakdown) – heating the oil causes molecular breakdown with or without contact
with food
2. Oxidation – the combination of heat and oxygen at the surfaces causes molecular breakdown at the
point of unsaturation and ultimately development of rancidity
3. Hydrolysis – the water reacts with oil and splits ester bridge between fatty acid and glycerol
4. Reaction with food residue – residue from the food being fried reacts with fats and contributes to
deterioration

Chemical Properties and Reactions: Ester Linkage Reactions

 Hydrolysis
- Involves the breaking of the ester linkage between the glycerol molecules and the fatty acids
resulting in the releases of FREE FATTY ACIDS
- For the reaction to occur, water is needed. The water is supplies by the natural moisture of food
- With the separation of fatty acids from glycerol, it undergoes decomposition forming acrolein – the
volatile bluish gas that indicates the smoke point of the oil
- In commercial frying operations, the free fatty acid content of the oil is routinely tested to monitor
extent of hydrolysis. If the free fatty acid content goes beyond the critical limits, it is changed
 Saponification
- Involves the formation of soap with the free fatty acid
- It is not a reaction that ordinarily happens in most food systems
 Rearrangement - This reaction is used in commercial preparation of shortening where a wide variety of
fatty acid molecules is desired to increase plasticity
 Acetylation
- It involves replacement of a fatty acid by ACETATE or Acetic Acid (chief acid of vinegar)
- This application is for the production of emulsifiers and food colors
 Oxidation
- All fats become spoiled when exposed to oxygen
- Oxidation is the process of a substance combining with oxygen
- The oxidation of fats produces a variety of compounds that smell and taste rancid
- Polyunsaturated fats SPOIL MOST READILY because their double bonds are unstable;
monounsaturated fats are slightly susceptible. Saturated fats are most resistant to oxidation and
thus least likely to become rancid.
 Hydrogenation
- The addition of hydrogen to increase hardness in fats to make it more stable against oxidation
- Isomerization is the side effect of hydrogenation resulting to conversion of cis to trans configuration
- Cis is commonly found in nature while trans fatty acids is responsible for the deleterious effect on
cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease
- This negative effect of trans fats has led the way for manufacturers to remove partial hydrogenation
of fats.
  Halogenization
- It refers to the ability of the halogens (iodine) to be added to a double bond in an unsaturated fatty
acid
- This reaction is the basis for the iodine value determination, a measure of the degree of unsaturation
of fatty acids

RANCIDITY OF FATS AND OILS

 Rancidity is a general term for the flavor problems that develop in fat-containing foods. A rancid
product has a distinct undesirable flavor.
(1) Hydrolytic Rancidity – results in the formation of free fatty acids and soaps and is caused by either the
reaction of lipid and water by the action of lipase
(2) Oxidative Rancidity – it occurs when oxygen combines with unsaturated fatty acids to produce reactive
compounds

PREVENTING RANCIDITY
 Antioxidants
- these are compounds that retard or delay rancidity and the flavor of deterioration associated with
the oxidation of fats
- Antioxidants are useful only for oxidative rancidity reactions but not for hydrolytic rancidity
- Antioxidants act as free radical scavenger
 Vitamin E (Alpha Tocopherol)
- Vitamin E is and effective scavenger of peroxyl radicals
- It reacts with the peroxyl radical forming a tocopherol radical which is an unreactive compound
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
- Donates hydrogen
- The initial oxidative reaction is the removal of hydrogen atom, the vitamin c returns the hydrogen
atom to form an unreactive ascorbic radical
 Phenolic Antioxidant
- These are all synthetic products and their use generate controversy
- Many country regulations prohibit the use of these groups of antioxidants. The use of natural plant
phenolics than synthetic products are somewhat encouraged
 Chelating Agent
- These are substances that bind metal contaminants thus preventing from catalyzing the oxidative
reaction
- they help antioxidants but they are not antioxidants
 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (map)
- It is a form of altering the gaseous composition inside a food package
- Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) – the package is flushed with carbon dioxide and
sometimes nitrogen. To remove oxygen from the food thus preventing it from reacting with the lipid.
 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MEP)
- Vacuum packaging – the food package is evacuated with AIR under vacuum and then heat-sealed

FAT AND OIL PRODUCTS

ANIMAL FATS
 Butter – the fat or cream that is separated from other milk constituents by agitation or churning.
- It is about 18% water dispersed in 80% fat with small amount of proteins as emulsifiers
 Lard – fatty tissues of the hog are chopped into small pieces and heated with or without water wet
rendering (Render – To melt down) is more common
 - Lard is a by-product of chicharron making. The chicharron is fried as the lard is being rendered.
 Beef tallow/Suet – it is dry rendered from fatty tissues of beef. It is used as an additive to various fryng
oils
 Fish oils – these are of interest nutritionally because of their omega-3 fatty acids.

PLANT FATS
 Vegetable oil
- Oilseeds are the major sources of oil from plants such as soybean, peanuts. Vegetable oils are
removed from oil containing seed, fruits or nuts by various pressing processes, by solvent extraction,
and by combination of these.
- The label Vegetable Oil is given when the oil is a mixture of usually palm or coconut oil
 Olive oil – obtained by pressing ripened olives
(1) Extra Virgin oil – is the product of the first cold pressing; it is pale straw (golden/blond) to green
with the acidity of not more than 1%
(2) Virgin Olive Oil – has 2% acidity and pale yellow to medium color
(3) Olive oil light – results from the last pressing and has and acidity up to 30%
(4) Olive oil pure – has undergone refining process and has an acidity of 3%
 Cottonseed Oil
- It is usually winterized. Winterization is a process which subjects the oil to a low temperature where
higher melting point glycerides are crystallized then filtered off.
- The remaining oil can withstand refrigeration temperatures without solidifying. This is an
characteristic required for salad oils
 Soybean oils
- The major edible oil in USA
- Currently available soybean oil comes from biotechnology to reduce the linolenic acid (omega 3 fatty
acids) content which makes it susceptible to oxidative rancidity
 Corn Oil - It is obtained from the germ of the corn endosperm. It is almost flavorless and high in
polyunsaturated fat mostly linolenic (55%) and oleic (omeg-9 fatty acid, monounsaturated) and ha 29%
 Canola Oil
- it is obtained from genetically modified rapeseed. Rapeseed is a member of the mustard family
- the modification reduced the amount of erucic acid (a crystalline fatty acid in rapeseed oil) from 20-
40% to less than 2%. Erucic acid has toxic effects in large quantities
 Vegetable Shortening – Shortening is made by hydrogenation refined oil
 Margarine
- it was developed as a substitute for the more expensive butter. It prepared from a mixture of
vegetable oil that is hydrogenated to a desired extent
- Fat content is like butter which is about 80-81%
 Coconut Oil
- The bulk of coconut oil commercially available is extracted from dried coconut meat called copra.
Milling copra yields about 63% crude coconut oil. The resulting refined coconut oil is colorless,
odorless, and has a neutral taste.
- It is composed mainly of saturated medium chain fatty acids
- Current findings show that short and medium chain fatty acids are absorbed directly through the
portal vein to the liver making it immediately available to the body.
 Benefits of Coconut oil:
- Almost 50% of fatty acids in natural coconut oil is Lauric Acid which in the body is converted to
monolaurin
- Lauric acid has been shown to destroy lipid membranes in a variety of microorganism and viruses
- Lauric acid is also the main fatty acid component In human breast milk and is considered to be
significant in protecting infants from illness
- It is now quite clear that coconut oil has been shown to be beneficial
- It is considered a functional food
 Virgin Coconut oil
- It is produced without the use of chemicals such as those used during the refining process. It is
derived directly from coconut milk.
- The current standard for VCO is 0.2% maximum free fatty acid and also 0.2% moisture
- This is the coconut oil that is considered a functional food and generally costs much more than the
refined coconut oil
- There is no official difference between extra virgin coconut oil and virgin coconut oil
 Palm Kernel Oil – is the seed oil and has fatty acid composition very similar to coconut oil
 Palm oil
- It is extracted from the fruit and constitutes equal amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Palm oil are also rich in vitamin e.
- Indonesia and Malaysia are the largest palm oil producers. Malaysian palm oil is available as red
palm oil and is rich in carotenoids. In addition to its culinary uses, it is used for biofuel (a fuel
produced from biological raw material)
- Starting 2007, all diesel sold must contain 5% palm oil
 Other culinary oils
- demands for more flavor variations in dishes have led to the use of other culinary oils such as
Avocado, Grapeseed, Pistachio, Pumpkin seed..
- all oils from edible seeds and nuts as well as flavored or infused oils

Functions of fats/oil in food preparation

- Fats and oils carry flavors that make eating a pleasurable experience
- They also act as lubricant and provide unique creamy mouth feel to food
- In baking, fats are called shortening because of its ability to “tenderize” the dough
- Full creams ice cream is creamier and smoother than low fat ice cream
- Sausages and meatballs without fats and oils are dry
- Fatty ingredients in food easily absorb foreign odors, so it is essential that proper storage conditions
are observed
 Snack food Industry
- The snack food industry and the fast food industries are the major industrial users for frying oil
- The temperature at which fat can be heated during frying is limited by smoking point
- Frying temperatures range from 170c-190c
 Blanching Medium
- Oil Blanching is an industrial process and is better known as first fry
- This is done in the manufacture of French Fries, Banana chips, and sweet potato chips.
- Blanching Is also a drying process. The food is quickly fried to cook but not to brown the surface or
make It crisp
- a final frying would accomplish that.
  Low Temperature Frying
- This is done at very low temperatures (below 100c) this is also known as oil poaching
- This is a special procedure used by chefs for delicate products such as fish. This is also used in the
preparation of chicharron
 Emulsion structure
- Emulsifiers are substances with both water-soluble and fat-soluble portions that promote the mixing
of oils and fats in watery solutions
- One of the chemical components of fats and oils, phospholipids and the best known of which is
lecithin
 Texture effect
- Fats affect the smoothness of crystalline candies and frozen desserts by retarding crystallization in
starch thickened mixtures
- Fat also contributes to the juiciness in meat and the foam structure of whipped cream
 Other functions
- spray or greasing, shortening, flavor effect, color effect, fat as sources of ingredient/supplement.

FAT SUBSTITUTES
1. Fat-Based Substitutes
a. Sucrose Fatty Acid Polyesters (SPEs)
- are mixture of compounds called esters made by combining sucrose esters and fatty acids. The most
common of which is olestra
- because of its large molecular size, olestra is not absorbed or metabolized by the body, thus it
contributes no calories in the diet
- olestra is currently used as a frying medium for savory snacks and as shortening
b. Fat Based Substitutes (SFEs)
- Are similar to SPEs however, their molecular size is smaller. They are partially or fully absorbed
providing 9 kcal/gm to the diet
- SFEs are used as emulsifiers and stabilizers in a wide variety of foods as components of coating used
to retard spoilage of fruits
2. Protein Based Fat Replacers
- Derived from a variety of protein sources including eggs, milks, whey, soy and wheat gluten
- These proteins undergo a process called microparticulation in which they are sheared under heat
into very small particles to impart similar mouth feel and texture as conventional fats
- They are used in frozen dairy desserts, cheese, baked goods, sauces and salad dressings and may
provide 1 to 4 kcal/gm
- Simplese and trailblazer are some of the brand names of this type of fat
3. Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers
- Include gums, starches, pectins and cellulose have been used as thickening agents to add bulk,
moistur and textural stability to different foods such as puddings, sauces, soups, baker good, salad
dressing and frozen desserts

DISPOSAL OF USED OIL

- Do not throw oil in the drain
- Dispose it as solid waste in a tightly sealed container
- It can also be mixed with compost
- Use an absorbent material such as soil or sand for spilled oil
- Large quantities of used oil are best taken to a gasoline station that has proper disposal procedures