Lecture 3 * SQB *2nd Semester

Sir Pen
 Lesson introduction

Terms and concepts

This lesson will guide This lesson contains 1
relative to classifying
students in the field of graded assessment and is
organisms as well as
taxonomy, systematics, equivalent to 3 class
constructing evolutionary
and classification. weeks.
tree will be discussed.
 At the end of this session, you will
be able to:

01 02 03
Explain how the structural Identify the Describe species diversity
and developmental unique/distinctive and cladistics, including
characteristics and characteristics of a the types of evidence and
relatedness of DNA specific taxon relative to procedures that can be
sequences are used in other taxa used to establish
classifying living things evolutionary relationships
Find the odd one out
Find the odd one out
Find the odd one out
 Lines of evidence use to conclude evolutionary relationships

Developmental Molecular Phylogenetic

Fossil evidence Homology Biogeography
biology clocks trees
Taxonomy and Systematics

Taxonomy is the study of the principles of scientific classification and

the systematic ordering and naming of organisms.

Systematics is the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of

organisms and their relationships, and diversification of different
organisms during time.
Goals of modern
systematics
• Differentiate individual organisms up to
species level.
• Provide a means of classification among
species.
• Keep the details of species and
classification to establish nomenclature.
• Determine the phylogeny of the
evolutionary relationship within the
hierarchy.
 In such case, many might confuse
identification with classification. To identify
an organism is to place an individual to an
already existing classified group.
Classification is more on assembly of groups
based on their relationship.
Biological nomenclature
• Nomenclature is the system of naming organisms.
• When an organism is named, it is given two names. The first name is the genus
and the second is species name.
• Both names, binomial nomenclature, are usually Latinized words or derived from
various sources.
• The following groups govern the system of nomenclature for different groups.
• Algae, Fungi, and Plants International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi,
and plants (ICN),
• Animals — International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
• Bacteria — International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)
• Cultivated plants -- International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
(ICNCP)
• Viruses — International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
Major rules in nomenclature:

• Names should be written in Latin

• The scientific name of an organisms is
always written with the capitalized genus
name and lower-case species name.
• Both genus and species name are italicized.
• When scientific names are handwritten,
provide space for the genus and species
name and underline both.
• All taxa should bear the authors name eg.
Homo sapiens L., the L stands for Linnaeus.
• Published papers about organisms’ name
and classification gets priority.
Physarum polycephalum
Taxonomic
Hierarchy Categories
• Taxonomic Hierarchy Categories were
Linnaeus and often called Linnaean
hierarchy.
• Taxonomic hierarchy is a sequence of
categories, in decreasing or increasing
order, from a more general group
(kingdom) to a more specific group
(species).
• Two categories of hierarchy:
• Obligate hierarchy strictly follows the
categories from kingdom to species.
• Intermediate hierarchy do not strictly
follow the kingdom to species and
often add other categories like
subdivision, super family, super class,
suborder, subspecies etc.
Concept of Species

• Species is defined as
organisms that belongs to a
population that has the
ability of interbreeding.
• Appearance may play a role
in identifying species, but it
does not necessarily define
a species.
• Many species appear to
look the same or be alike
and be in different species.
The case of Meadowlark (Sturnella sp.)
The Western meadowlark (S. neglecta, left) and the Eastern meadowlark (S.
magna, right) appear to be identical, and their ranges overlap, but their distinct songs
prevent interbreeding.
Definition of species

• The Darwinian definition - Darwin noted that

species is “arbitrarily given for the sake of
convenience to a set of individuals closely
resembling each other, and that it does not
essentially differ from the term variety, which
is given to less distinct and more fluctuating
forms.
• Phenetic species concept - species is a set of
organisms that are morphologically or
phenotypically similar while looking different
from other organisms. For this concept
phenotypic similarity is the sole basis for
recognizing species. However, cryptomorphic
organism or morphologically similar looking
but genetically unrelated species may not fit
to this definition
Species are those
organisms that can
reproduce their own
kind
Definition of species

• Phylogenetic species concept - a species is a

"tip or an end” on a phylogeny. Therefore, a
species is the smallest set of organisms that
share an ancestor and can be distinguished
from other related organisms.
• Genotypic cluster species concept - species
are groups of individuals that are overall
significantly more like each other than to
members of other species. The concept
demands the existence of discontinuous
variation, of gaps in morphological or genetic
variation between putative species.
Phylogenetic species
concept applied to
salamander. Both
salamander A and B are
separate species based on
lineages but has a common
ancestor that individuals of
other species do not.
Definition of species

• Isolation concept - as defined Ernst Mayr

"species are groups of interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated
from other such groups." As species
interbreed their genes combine and passed to
their offspring. This process is repeated and
makes the interbreeding species unique
compared to other species.
• Mate recognition concept – within a species,
organisms can recognize one another as
potential partner or mates. As such, species
have a shared mate recognition system.
Beetles mate selection
include morphological and
physiological factors such
as size, coloration, and
hormones,
Definition of species

• Cohesion species concept – could be said

as an extension of mate recognition
concept. Species are the most inclusive
group of organisms having the potential
for genetic and/or demographic
exchangeability. Species have a potential
for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic
mechanisms.
• Genetic species concept- species is a
group of genetically compatible
interbreeding natural populations that is
genetically isolated from other groups.
 Modes of speciation

• Allopatric speciation occurs when a species separates into two separate groups and are isolated from
one another. Such separation can be caused by physical barrier like mountain range or a waterway.
With these physical barriers breeding makes physically impossible. As separation takes longer, each
species Each species develops differently due to environmental consequences of their habitat or their
genes.
• Peripatric speciation happens when small groups of individuals part from the larger group and form a
new species. Just like in allopatric speciation, physical barriers play an important role in the lack of
interbreeding. However, unlike in allopatric speciation, peripatric speciation is characterized by a
smaller group parting from a bigger group. The distinctive characteristics of the smaller groups are
then passed to the next generation thereby making the traits more common among that group but
distinguishing from the other group.
Modes of speciation

• Parapatric speciation , species are spread out over a large geographic area. Even though
interbreeding is possible, individuals only mate with those within their geographic region. Just
like allopatric and peripatric speciation, environmental factors affect parapatric speciation.
Unlike the first two modes, parapatric speciation separation exists not because of physical
barrier but by the differences in the same environment such as pollution and mining activities.
• Sympatric speciation arises when a new species spontaneously develop from a population
even in the absence of physical barriers and even when the members are near one another. To
add, this theory explains that some individuals become dependent on certain environmental
aspects like food and shelter while other do not.
• Artificial speciation is the creation of new species using biotechnology or other “artificial
means”. Usually this is achieved in a controlled environment like in the lab.
 Dichotomous Key
A textual/graphical tool that aims to guide users in identifying objects and organisms.

It is composed of specific series of questions or statement that leads the user to a more specific
characteristics of an organism.

Dichotomous keys are very useful for identifying an organism as a member of a single, closely related
group of organisms based on unique character.

In some cases, this key can identify up to species level, however not all characteristics are easy to identify
especially for closely related species.
 Phylogeny refers to the
Similar relationships among
evolutionary history of the
organisms are shown in a
development of a species or
tree like diagram called
taxonomic group of
phylogenetic tree
organisms.

Phylogeny Phylogenetic tree shows

Phylogeny is essential in the
how one taxon or taxonomic
scientific study particularly in
group of any rank are closely
the identification,
related to another taxon
classification, ecology, and
based on molecular and
evolutionary histories of
morphological similarities
organisms.
and analysis.
 The used of shared traits as a system of
biological classification is called cladistics.

Started by Willi Hennig in the 1960’s,

cladistics offers an avenue for tracing
Cladistics ancestry through organisms shared
common characteristics.

Like phylogeny, the process of constructing

cladogram requires both morphological and
molecular data provide visual evolutionary
history and relationships between species.
 • The image on the right
shows a clade or a group of
organisms that includes an
ancestor and all its
descendants.
• Clades are represented in a
cladogram.
• The cladogram represents
the mammal and reptile
clades. The reptile clade
includes birds, turtles,
lizards, snakes, and
crocodile. It also shows that
birds evolved from reptiles
Clades and cladogram
 • Cladistics hypothesizes ancestral relationships
among organisms.
• At the end, it provides a visual representation
Constructing of ancestry through an evolutionary tree.
cladograms • Basic assumptions in constructing the
cladograms:
• Change in characteristics occurs in lineages
over time.
• Any group of organisms is related by
descent from a common ancestor.
• There is a bifurcating, or branching, pattern
of lineage-splitting.
 Character States of Organisms
Character states are visual and ancestral ideas presented in a cladogram.

Character states seen in a cladogram:

• Autapomorphies – traits that are found in only one species or taxon that stems from a
common ancestor i.e., legless trait of snakes compared to other reptile groups.
• Synapomorphies - trait seen in the entire clade i.e., opposable thumbs in humans and
primates.
• Homoplasy - trait shared by multiple groups, species and taxa that is not derived from a
shared common ancestor i.e., birds and mammals are warm-blooded but do not have a
directly shared ancestor that had that trait.
 Methods of constructing a cladogram

Determine whether Analyze whether the

Choose taxa of Provide a chart of similarities are shared characteristics
interest eg species of characteristics you homologous or the are derived from a
birds, cacti, or fishes wish to study. product of convergent common ancestor or
evolution. derived later.

Group the Build a cladogram by Use nodes on

Place taxa on the
synapomorphies arranging groups of branches to represent
endpoints of branches,
(shared derived organisms on a points where two
not at nodes.
homologous traits). treelike diagram. species diverged.