Plant Classification and

Nomenclature

Spring 2014
 Elements of Understanding
Biological Diversity
Description: requires observation and measurement of
characters and their states and synthesis of this information

Classification: requires hierarchical organization of taxa based

on evolutionary relationships

Naming (nomenclature): requires following nomenclatural

conventions and enables communication

Identification: requires tools such as keys that are based on

previous description, classification, and naming of taxa
 Elements of Understanding
Biological Diversity
Description of Diversity
Observation & Organization

Classification of Diversity
Convention & Communication

Naming of Diversity
 Description
• Provides some basic identifiable set of
characteristics to associate with the organism;
also basis for characters and character states for
phylogenetic analysis.
• Can be as general or as detailed as practicality
dictates.
• Needs to contain enough data to provide adequate
discrimination between similar organisms.
• Needs terminology.
• Descriptions are linked with a name when there is
consistency in the set of observed characters for a
given organism.
 Classification
• A systematic arrangement in groups or categories according
to established criteria; biological classification involves the
delimitation, ordering and ranking of taxa.

• Classification provides ORDER to the group of entities.

• Relies on observations, many definable and comparable

characters, and an ability to discern them.

• Completely effective classifications can be artificial, that is,

not necessarily reflecting evolutionary relationships: i.e.,
trees vs. shrubs vs. herbs.

• But modern classifications are based on evolutionary history

(phylogeny) because this provides predictive power and
synthesis of many types of data is possible.

• Biological classifications are hierarchical (= information

storage system).
 Classification in Your Life…

• Do you classify things?

• Do you do it deliberately?
Unconsciously?
 Let’s go home...*
• In your room or apartment, think about what
groups of items you automatically
classify…

• What characteristics and criteria do you use

to do this?

• Is the classification a continuous, ongoing

thing, does it happen occasionally, or at
very distinct times?

• WHY do you do this?

*Mentally, that is – so just sit down and think…
 Some examples:
• Kitchen:
- Silverware [knives, forks, spoons], plates, bowls,
pots, pans, cooking utensils, trays, etc.
- Refrigerator – meats, vegetables, fruits, eggs,
bottles, cans, salad dressings, frozen foods.
• Bedroom:
- Closet & dresser [shoes, boots, shirts, slacks,
etc.]
- Jewelry
• Living room:
- CDs, Video tapes/DVDs, books, magazines
• Study:
- Textbooks, pens & pencils, paper, etc.
 A basic fact of life:

“Everyone is a Taxonomist”
 Artificial taxonomy
• These classifications are based on
use or similarity of shape.
• Generally based on one or few
“characters”.
• Single character taxonomy may work
in these situations, but…
Single character taxonomy is bad
taxonomy for biological systems.
What makes a good classification?

- Groups recognized according to overall

similarity within groups (as seen by multiple
characters) and discontinuities between
groups and relatedness (evolutionary history).

- The classification has predictive value –

Characteristics of other related organisms can
be predicted by the classification because of
the evolutionary perspective.

- The classification is practical and useful.

Why is biological classification
possible?

Because variation exists in nature.

Four species of the bamboo genus Chusquea

Discontinuity of Biological Diversity

• Must be able to identify discrete “packages”

of biological diversity: species.

 Discontinuity is caused by:

1. evolution and speciation, or
2. extinction, or
3. a combination of 1. and 2.
 Assessing Biological Discontinuity
• To establish a classification, one must be able
to use discontinuities to delimit groups at
various hierarchical levels, e.g.:
- How different are populations to warrant
calling them distinct species?
- How distinct are two groups to be able to
recognize them as separate genera?

• Establishing ranks can be very subjective –

the more objectivity we can impose on the
process, the more reliable the classification.
 Evolutionary Time

Speciation Phylogeny
 Effects of
Extinction

Speciation Phylogeny
Speciation Apparent Phylogeny
 Hierarchical (nested) categories
and phylogeny

GENUS
FAMILY
TIME

ORDER

CLASS

PHYLUM
Phylogenetics and Classification
 Principles of Biological
Classification
• Should be based on a well established
hypothesis of relationships (a phylogeny)
whenever possible
• Ideally only recognizable (morphologically
diagnosable) clades are formally named
• Ranks should represent more or less
equivalent branching points (but this is
often ignored)
 Phylogenetics and Classification

Branching order can be

inferred from the written
classification.
Fig. 2.19A-C
Classification

precedes

nomenclature!
In terms of nomenclature, so far…
• We have been using names of plants to
discuss their “position” in the plant
kingdom, reflecting some level of
evolutionary understanding.
• The names for plant species or genera have
been used as a “given” – that is, we did not
talk about how those names came into
being or how they are correctly used.
• We need to understand how the accepted
system of nomenclature works – how the
giving of names to plants follows a specific
set of guidelines and rules.
 Naming and Nomenclature
• Plants did not evolve with a name!
• However, we need names to communicate
about the plant
• Organized system of names enables fitting
the plant into an accepted scheme
• Following formal naming rules =
nomenclature
• The system must allow for changes as new
information (and other species) are
discovered
• It is helpful if names are descriptive
 What about common names?
• Positives:
- easily recognizable
- easier to pronounce and spell (!)
• Negatives:
- Name varies by language or region
- Not specific (ironwood, bigleaf, ivy, etc.)
- Conveys no evolutionary information
- Does not include classificatory
information
• Botanists rely on the ‘botanical’ or scientific
name for accurate communication about
the plant in question
Common name?

Whitlow grass

‘Real’ name:
Draba verna
(Brassicaceae)
The International
Code of Nomenclature
for Algae, Fungi and Plants
is the “legal” code for
naming of plants.

A new version is
produced following
each international
botanical congress
(ca. every six years).
 Principles of Nomenclature
• Botanical and zoological classification systems are
independent of one another
• Applying names to taxonomic groups is based on a
system of nomenclatural types
• Names are based on the priority of publication – the
earliest valid name is the one to use (later names for
the same taxon are called synonyms); starting point
for plants is Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753)
• Each taxon can have only one correct name
• Scientific names are in Latin or are treated as
Latinized words, regardless of origin
• Rules of nomenclature (ICN) are retroactive unless
expressly limited
 Plant Names

An exception to the rule that there is only ONE legitimate

name per taxon:

Eight angiosperm families have two acceptable names:

(Arecaceae = Palmae; Apiaceae = Umbelliferae; Asteraceae =
Compositae; Brassicaceae = Cruciferae; Clusiaceae = Guttiferae;
Fabaceae = Leguminosae; Poaceae = Gramineae)
Classification of Black Pepper
Kingdom Viridiplantae (Chlorobionta)
Division/Phylum Anthophyta (Embryophyta)
Class Magnoliopsida
Subclass Magnoliidae (often not used now)
Order Piperales
Family Piperaceae
Genus Piper
Species Piper nigrum

Genus and species names are always italicized.

Scientific names are binomials!

But all species names have

three parts…

Piper nigrum L.
 Piper nigrum L. = Black Pepper
Piper – Genus name or generic epithet –
Member of the genus Piper

nigrum – Species epithet – Latin for ‘black’

L. = Linnaeus –
Author – Person who described plant

Black Pepper – Common name

 Naming a New Species
• These steps must be followed in naming a new species, according to
the ICN:

1. The name (specific epithet) must be in Latin or Latinized (but Latin

diagnoses or descriptions are no longer required)
2. The rank of the new name must be clearly indicated (in this case,
species novum or new species)
3. A type specimen must be designated (including the herbarium where
it is deposited)
4. All of this information and any additional material (e.g., illustrations)
must be effectively published (presented in a publication that is widely
available to other botanists)

Following all of these steps results in valid publication of the name.

The process of describing a new species can take a year or more,
depending on what studies are needed to justify it as a new species,
how long it takes to prepare illustrations and keys, and which journal or
book it is published in.
 Fig. 16.2

Latin no
longer needed.
 The Type System
• Each species name must be based on a type specimen, with
which the name is permanently associated.
• Types are preserved as reference specimens, often kept
separately from the remaining collections in the herbarium.
• The type specimen must fit within the concept of the species,
but does not necessarily have to be representative of average
variation (i.e., it may represent one of the extremes of variation
in the species)
• The species name used for the type specimen is considered
the basionym, or original name as described, and follows that
specimen in perpetuity
• Names of higher ranks are based on typified names published
validly and effectively
 Types by Rank
• The type is one physical specimen deposited in an
herbarium to which the name is attached and upon
which the species description is based (holotype);
the holotype can be an illustration although this is
unusual.

• Every species has a type specimen.

• Every genus has a type species.

• Every family has a type genus (and so on):

- Asteraceae -Aster; Poaceae – Poa; Lamiaceae -
Lamium.
 Type Specimen of
Sobralia kerryae Dressler
(Orchidaceae)

Holotype
 Botanical Types
• Holotype – The one specimen (or illustration)
designated by the author that will serve as the
nomenclatural type
• Isotype – A duplicate of the holotype (part of the
same gathering); always a specimen
• Lectotype – The specimen designated as the
nomenclatural type if no holotype is available or
indicated by the author
• Syntype - Any specimen that is cited in the original
description when no holotype was designated by
the author
• Neotype – A ‘new’ type specimen designated when
all material for the original type description is
missing
Chusquea latifolia L. G. Clark (Colombia)
Also common to
explain derivation
of name and to highlight
distinguishing
features as well as to
summarize distribution
and habitat.
Illustrations, maps,
and dichotomous
keys distinguishing
the new species from
related ones are
usually included.
 Publication
• Names of new taxa must be published effectively
and validly to have recognition in the systematics
community under the ICN:
- Effective Publication – The information must be
published in a recognized botanical journal or book
(…not a seed catalog or newspaper, internet, etc.);
publication in electronic journals is now also
approved.
- Valid Publication – All of the conditions laid out in the
ICN have been met, including effective publication.
- The new name is considered to be a legitimate name
if all of the correct publication conditions are met.
Whether the name becomes accepted (or not)
depends on how the botanical community agrees
with the author.
 Why (and how) do
plant names change?
 Plant names change when:
• The classification system has changed
- By far the more typical and frequent cause
of name changes
- New data often support revision of
concepts of generic, familial, or other
circumscriptions, necessitating name
changes
• Because of nomenclatural errors
- Errors made in original descriptions or
taxonomic revisions may need to be
corrected by changing the names of plants
due to improper format, invalid
publication, etc.
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.
• Original Description
- Described by Linnaeus as Thlaspi bursa pastoris L.,
because the species fit in his concept of Thlaspi
- Placed as one species in genus Thlaspi, but was not the
first species described in the genus (that was T. arvense L.)

• Subsequent Revision of Taxonomy

- Friedrich Kasimir Medikus (Dir. Botanisches Garten
Mannheim) thought the species should be placed in a
separate genus, which he named Capsella in 1792
-The specific epithet must be retained in such a transfer and
the original name becomes a synonym

• This is an example of a taxonomic transfer. The author

names reflect the history of publication of the original
species name (basionym) and the subsequent transfer to a
new genus
 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L). Medik.

Syn.: Thlaspi bursa pastoris L. basionym

The type specimen of the basionym

(original name) stays the same and
is the type of the currently accepted
species name in Capsella. The concept
of the species has not changed; only
its generic placement has changed.
 Synonyms - Priority
• If two (or more) different names are determined to
be the same entity, the earliest validly and
effectively published name has priority.
– Malus pumila Miller, 1768 (invalid)
– Malus domestica Borkh., 1803
– Malus communis Poiret, 1804 (SYNONYM)

• If the same name has been used for more than one
taxon, these are considered HOMONYMS.
– Platonia Raf. 1810 is a genus of Cistaceae (rock rose
family)
– Platonia Kunth 1829 is a genus of Poaceae (bamboo);
this name was changed to Neurolepis Meisn. in 1843
 Chusquea – 138 species

Neurolepis – 21 species
Molecular phylogeny of the subtribe Chusqueinae
Chusquea

C
▪Multiple, dimorphic
* S
buds

R
▪Connate lemma
tips

N1
▪Spikelet structure
*
▪Papillate
subsidiary cells
N2

*type species Neurolepis

 What to do?
• Neurolepis is paraphyletic to Chusquea
• Neither N1 nor N2 has synapomorphies
• All clades share the same spikelet and flower
structure
• Chusquea Kunth was published in 1822 and
Neurolepis in 1843, so Chusquea is the older
generic name
• So, we synonymized Neurolepis with Chusquea;
all of the species formerly in Neurolepis received
new combinations or new names in Chusquea
Neurolepis elata (Kunth) Pilg.
(basionym Platonia elata Kunth)
becomes
Chusquea elata (Kunth) L. G. Clark

Neurolepis pittieri McClure becomes

Chusquea magnifolia L. G. Clark
(a new name is needed because
the combination C. pittieri Hack. already exists)
Are there similar examples
at the family level?
 Sapindaceae phylogeny
(based on morphology; Judd et al. 1994)
SAP

HIPP
SAP

SAP
SAP
SAP
Chemistry
SAP
Appendaged petals
Curved embryo w/
seed coat “pocket” ACER
8 or fewer stamens
Etc.
 Sapindaceae molecular phylogeny
(Buerki et al. 2010)

Sapindaceae
in the broad Sapindaceae (traditional)
sense

Aceraceae

Hippocastanaceae

Xanthoceraceae
(X. sorbifolium)
Shares some but not all of the morphological synapomorphies
shown on the previous slide.
 Nomenclatural Errors
An example:

• Chusquea arachniforme L.G. Clark & Londoño was

published in 1998
• Subsequently corrected to Chusquea arachniformis
L.G. Clark & Londoño because the original form of the
specific epithet was not correct in Latin
 Hybrid Taxa
• Hybrids are indicated with the "X" sign and may be
given in two forms, the first where the parental taxa
are indicated, the second where the hybrid taxon is
given a new name:
Quercus alba L. X Q. michauxii Nutt. or
Quercus X beadlei Trelease

• Hybrid genera (a nothogenus) are indicated by an X

before the name, which is composed of elements of
the contributing parental genera:
XDialaeliocattleya is an intergeneric hybrid of
Diacrium, Laelia and Cattleya
 Cultivar Names
• Cultivated plants follow a “related” code of
horticultural nomenclature

• Examples of correct cultivar names of apple, Malus

baccata Borkh.:
– M. baccata cv. Columnaris
– M. baccata 'Jackii'
– Malus 'Barbara Ann'
• Cultivar Names: First letter capitalized, not Latinized
(thus, not italic), preceded by cultivar abbreviation
(cv.), or in single quotes (‘Jackii’).
Several databases help track
all of this information

http://www.tropicos.org/Home.aspx

http://www.ipni.org/