Oral Communication 1
LESSON 1: NATURE AND ELEMENTS
OF COMMUNICATION
Communication
 is the process of giving and receiving information
between a human source and a human receiver using
words, symbols, or actions.
 Communication is essential to human life. Without it,
we cannot function properly. One of the primary ways
we communicate is through oral communication. This
includes LANGUAGE.
THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Senders
 Senders convey messages by converting their thoughts
into symbols or observable signals such as words. This
is called codification and is usually done through the
use of language.
Receivers
 Receivers hear the signals and convert the symbols into
their thoughts. This is called decoding, deciphering, or
interpretation.
Messages
 are the ideas or thoughts that are transmitted from
sender to receiver. They are the result of interpretation
of symbols, when meaning is derived from observable
signals.
 Schema
- is the culture and experience together. When the
sender and receiver have similarity between the
schema, there is a much bigger of interpretation
between them.
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
 Symbols are observable signals transmitted from sender
to receiver. They can be spoken signals that are heard
(such as spoken words), printed symbols that can be
read (such as printed words), hand signals that are seen
(such as signals in sign language), or even symbols that
are felt (such as Braille writing for the blind)
 Symbols do not have meaning in themselves.
- For example, when the sender says the word
“dog”, an image in the mind of the receiver is
formed when the receiver hears the word.
However, it is up to the receiver what kind of
images comes to mind– whether the dog is furry or
not, what breed it is, what color and size it is, etc.
- Sometimes, the meaning stirred up by the word in
mind of the receiver may be different from the
meaning intended by the sender.
 Symbols may be verbal or nonverbal.
- When symbols come in the form of utterances
coming from mouth of a speaker, they are
considered verbal. If they come from body
movements other than that of the mouth, they are
considered nonverbal. Verbal symbols usually
come in the form of spoken words, but they may
also be in other forms such as grunts (huh or ugh),
breaths (hmmm or ahh), shrieks (ahh! Or ay!) or
anything else coming out of the mouth of the
speaker.
Channels
 refers to the medium through which the message is sent.
It connects the sender and receiver. Usually, it is the air
around the sender and the receiver. When the sender
uses a microphone or other device, then that becomes
part of the channel. The quality of the channel depends
on how free it is of noise.
 Noise
 is anything that reduces the quality of the signal
sent by the sender through the channel,
weakening the communication between sender
and receiver. It could be garbled, too low in
volume, have too much echo or any other
reduction in quality. For example, the
surrounding is very windy or noisy, the words
spoken by speaker can be affected.
Feedback
 refers to the message transmitted by the receiver in
response to the message of the speaker. It may come as
feedback on the quality of the observed signal such as
when listener says, “huh?” when he or she does not
hear the utterance clearly.
Example: “We have no classes today”
“ Really?”, shows disbelief.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal Communication
 It involves talking to yourself. It allows you to get to
know yourself better, organize your thoughts, and heal
yourself emotionally.
 It allows you to explain yourself about your motives &
actions against your values and help you to make
adjustments.
Interpersonal Communication
 It involves talking to one or a limited number of people.
This requires you to adjust your speech to suit the
character & personality of person or people you talk to.
Since you are communicating with a limited number of
people, the opportunity for feedback and clarification is
much greater.
 When it is between two people, then it is considered a
dyad. In this context, the possibility of clarification &
feedback is maximized because the interlocutors
(participants) are focusing one on one. In addition, the
opportunity to speak & express ideas is also
maximized.
 When it is between three or more people, it is
considered a small group. In this context, the
possibility of clarification & feedback is lessened
because there is more than one person to adjust to. The
opportunity to focus on the topic is also lessened
because the participant may say something that is not
connected to the topic.
Public Communication
 It involves communicating to a wide group of people
with very varied traits, background, interests, and
persuasion. Engaging in this type of communication
means avoiding specialized language such as jargon or
slang. This requires to avoid topics/discussions that
may be understandable to only a select few.
Intercultural Communication
 It involves communicating to a wide a person or group
of people who may not share the same assumptions,
values, allegiances as that of yours and may have
different assumptions with the symbols you take for
granted as having a particular meaning. This also
means avoiding loaded language such as metaphors &
other figures of speech.
LESSON 2: COMMUNICATION
MODELS
LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
 In linear model, communication is considered one-way
process where sender is the only one who sends
message and receiver doesn’t give feedback or
response.
 Linear model is applied in mass communication like
television, radio, etc. This model is not applicable in
general human communication as general human
communication has to have feedback and responses.
 Key features
 One-way communication
 Used for the mass communication
 Senders send message and receivers only
receive
 No feedback
 Concept of noise
 Pros
 Good at audience persuasion and propaganda
setting
 Intentional results
 Cons
 Communication is not continuous as no concept
of feedback
 No way to know if communication was
effective
Lasswell’s Communication Model
Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell’s Model
1. It does not include feedback.
2. Without feedback, a communication process cannot
be fruitful.
3. Ignores the possibility of noise.
4. It is very linear and does not consider barriers in the
communication process.
Types of Linear Communications
 Aristotle’s Model
 Aristotle’s Model is a linear communication
model which was made for public speaking. In
Aristotle’s model, the speaker sent message and
the audience receive it. The model was made to
establish a propaganda.
Critical Elements of a Good Communicator
 Ethos
 Ethos is the characteristic which makes you
credible in front of the audience. If there is no
credibility, the audience will not believe in you
and will not be persuaded by you. Expertise and
positions also give credibility to a person.
 Pathos
 If what you say matters to them and they can
connect with it, then they will be more
interested and they will think you are more
credible. Emotional bonds will make the
audience captivated and they feel the speaker is
one of their own people.
 Logos
 Logos is logic. People believe in you only if
they understand what you are trying to say.
People find logic in everything. If there is no
logic behind the speaker’s work or time, they
do not want to get involved. Everybody has a
sense of reason. You must present facts to the
audience for them to believe in you.
 Shannon-Weaver Model
 The Shannon Weaver Model of Communication is
a mathematical model used for technical
communication or machine communication like
telegraph and telephone. In Shannon Weaver’s
model, if the channel does not have distorting
elements or noise producing elements, the
communication is successful.
Concepts in Shannon-Weaver Model
 Sender (Information source)
– Sender is the person who makes the message,
chooses the channel and sends the message.
 Encoder (Transmitter)
– Encoder is the sender who uses machine,
which converts message into signals or binary
data. It might also directly refer to the
machine.
 Channel
– Channel is the medium used to send message.
 Decoder (Receiver)
– Decoder is the machine used to convert
signals or binary data into message or the
receiver who translates the message from
signals.
 Receiver (Destination)
– Receiver is the person who gets the message
or the place where the message must reach.
The receiver provides feedback according to
the message.
 Noise
– Noise is the physical disturbances like
environment, people, etc. which does not let
the message get to the receiver as what is
sent.
 Berlo’s SMCR Model
 Berlo’s Model was made to understand general
human communication. In Berlo’s Model,
communication depends on many factors: like
communication skills, attitude, knowledge, socio-
cultural systems, the way in which the message
has been sent, the content of the message, senses
of the receiver, etc.
INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
 Also known as Convergence Model.
 The communication process takes place between
humans or machines in both verbal or non-verbal way.
This is a relatively new model of communication for
new technologies like web.
 Example: Internet has increased the opportunity of
interactive communication and it is still evolving.
Human-computer interaction is also now considered as
interactive communication as the model is circular
where the senders interchange every time.
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
 It is the exchange of messages between sender and
receiver where each take turns to send or receive
messages.
 Both sender and receiver are known as communicators
and their role reverses each time in the communication
process as both processes of sending and receiving
occurs at the same time.
 The model is mostly used for interpersonal
communication and is also called circular model of
communication.
 The transactional model is the most general model of
communication.
Factors Affecting Transactional Model
  Social Context
 Social context in communication refers to the
norms, values, laws and other restrictions of a
society to communicate within a specific limit.
It also includes rules that bind people’s ability
to communicate. Society shapes the way a
person communicates.
 Cultural Context
 Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a
person. Caste, class, race, ethnicity, gender, etc.
are the contexts which promote communication.
 Relational Context
 Relational context of communication relates to
relationship history and manners.
THE GATEKEEPER MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
 This fourth model can represent mass communication –
that is, how an audience receives information from
media, the intermediaries of information.
 Media takes the role of “gatekeeper.”
 MTRCB takes the function of a gatekeeper.
ECOLOGICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
 The most complex of all communication models.
 It expounds the role of mass media, as well as the
individuals and groups that control these outlets of
information.
 Communication between people (creators and
consumers) is mediated by messages which are created
using language within media; consumed from media
and interpreted using language.
Ecology- refer to the environment where people interact
among each other., using a particular language that they
commonly understand.
 E.g. Language of Lawyers. Language of
Doctors.
LESSON 3: FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
Communication
 as a human activity always serves a function. Functions
of communication refer to how humans use language
for different purposes. Theoretician such as Roman
Jakobson, Michael Halliday, and Bronislaw Malinowsi
have categorized the different uses or functions of
communication.
Regulation/Control
 can be used to control the behaviour of human beings.
It can be used to regulate the nature and amount of
activities humans engage in.
Language Forms for Regulation and Control
 Imperatives
 communication as a means of regulation and
control can come in the form of commands.
 Example:
Please come in.
Get a chair.
Run.
 Rhetorical Questions
 they are not intended to get information. It can
take as a form of control would be questions
that influence.
 Example:
Human Behavior.
Why don't we go to the dining room now?
Do you have a pen?
 Declaratives
 The idea is that when a person says something,
he/she wants the listener to do something.
 Example:
I want to be alone.
You need to hurry.
That's not the right thing to do.
Social Interaction
 Communication can be used to produced social
interaction. In their daily course of living, human being
develop and maintain bonds, intimacy, relations and
associations.
Motivation
 as a function of communication refers to a person using
a language to express desires, needs, wants, likes and
dislikes, inclinations, choices and aspirations
Information
 communication can be used giving and getting for
information. Giving information usually comes in the
form of statements of facts (grammatically known as
declaratives)
Language Forms for Sharing/Obtaining Information
 Giving information using statements:
 I have three brothers.
 Philippine Normal University was established
in 1901.
 For every action, there is a reaction
 Giving information using rhetorical questions:
 Did you know that some earphones can be used
as microphones?
 Using questions:
Did it rain last night?
 Using imperatives:
Show me how to tie a knot.
 Using declaratives:
 I don't know where to find it.
Emotional Expression
 Human always need to express their emotions verbally
and nonverbally. Emotions are a central part of who we
are. Beyond thinking about the things and people in our
world, we feel about them and about ourselves.
Special Case of Expressing Opinions
- The function to which expressing an opinion belongs
depends on the purpose and setting in which it is done.
Expressing an opinion has broad function covering
every category of communication functions.
Verbal and Non-verbal cues that each speaker uses to
achieve their purpose
Verbal Communication
 In order to communicate properly, speakers must not
only communicate using their words, but also their
actions. Their words and actions must match.
Otherwise, miscommunication can occur.
Communication using words is also called Verbal
communication.
Pause
 A speaker pauses between utterances in order to
allow listeners to process what the speaker has
spoken.
Loudness or Softness
 depending on the speaker's style, emphasis can be
achieved by either speaking loudly or softly. In
 addition, other emotions can be expressed using
the loudness or softness of the voice.
Rhythm
 The way a speaker talks can be a powerful tool to
engage listeners. Rhythm refers to the speed and
flow of a speaker's utterances.
Repetition and Rephrasing
 reading, a listener cannot go back to what a
speaker has spoken if the speaker did not
understand that particular utterance. As part of the
speakers' effort to help the listener understand, the
speaker will do well to repeat his or her utterances
specially if the content of the utterance is difficult
to understand.
Tone
 Tone of voice is essential in communicating
effectively. The tone of voice often shows the
attitude of the speaker toward the topic or the
listener.
Appropriate Form of Language
 a speaker must use the appropriate form of
language to be used in a given setting. The
technical term for the form of language used is
register.
Non-Verbal Communication
 Communication involves expressing oneself without
the use of words. Because of its non-verbal
communication is more prone to misinterpretation than
verbal communication.
Gestures
 play an important role in communication. They
can help express a speaker's point better.
Eye contact
 When a speaker maintains eye contact with his or
her listeners, he or she gives the impression of
being serious about what is being discussed.
Posture
 good posture is beneficial not only for health
reasons but also for relating to others when
speaking. In general, standing with an erect body
and head makes for good posture and is applicable
in most settings.
Facial Expression
 A speaker's facial expression must match the topic
of discussion.
Proxemics
 speakers must make use of the space around
properly. The use of space in the communication
called proxemics.
LESSON 4: TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
1. Frozen Styles
 Also known as fixed speech
 It is most the most formal communicative style
that is often used in respectful situation or
formal ceremony
 As most highly formal style, it uses the
complex grammatical sentence structure and
vocabulary
 known only to experts in a particular field It
invites the reader to enter into a personal
experience of creative discovery such as literary
 texts like poetry The writing reflects the efforts
of revision
EXAMPLES OF FROZEN:
 Pledge of Allegiance
 Shakespeare's plays
 Weddings
 Introduction of each other between
acquaintance
2. Formal Style
 It uses formal words and expressions
 Example:
Formal
 "Toyota's sales bounced back in March as
substantial discounts helped to win back
customers who had been shaken by the firm's
mass safety recalls."
Casual/ Informal expressed counterpart:
 "Did you see Toyota's sales figures? Looks
like the discounts have actually worked."
 Most often seen in writing than in speaking
 This speech style is expected to be presented in
complete sentences with specific word usage
 Its usually elaborate complex sentences and
noun phrases are well structured, logically
sequenced, and strongly coherent
 It does not allow ellipsis (like omissions),
contractions, qualifying modal adverbless like
(evidently, surely, and certainly)
EXAMPLES OF FORMAL:
 Job Interview
 Business Trip
 Dinner Party
 Prestigious Ceremony
 Meeting
 Academic Papers
3. Consultative Style
 Known as the Third Level of language - It is
unplanned speech
 This speech style uses listener participation and
feedback
The two defining features of this style are:
(a) the speaker supplies background
information
(b) the listener participates continuously
 Less appropriate for writing
EXAMPLES OF CONSULTATIVE:
 When a student is talking to his or her teacher
 When a student recites in class
4. Casual or Informal Style
 This style is used in conversations between
friends and insiders who have something to
share and have shared background information
 There is free and easy participation of both
speaker and listener
 It is marked by various degrees of implicitness
because of intimacy between speaker and
listener
 The use of language is general
 It is appropriate to use casual language in
situations where speech is improvised and not
prepared ahead of time, or when the writer is
writing quickly without editing
 You also use casual language when you want to
get to know someone on a more personal level,
or you want the person to feel at ease.
 A simple greeting with those you know well
might probably be the causal:
- "Hi"
- "Hey"
- "What's up?"
- "How is it going?"
- "How do you do?"
- "Nice to meet you, Mr./Mrs./Ms., Dr.,
 - "Will you please excuse me for a
moment?"
- "Excuse me"
 Casual or informal style have ellipsis, allows
the use of slang, profanity, and unconventional
English words
 The diction or vocabulary is informal
(colloquial)
 Some of the vocabulary used only in casual
situations are:
– "dude" (a person)
– "freaking out" (getting scared)
– "nope" (no)
– "puke" (throw up)
 Its casual language uses words or phrases that
are shortened like:
– "I'm doin' it my way" (doing)
– "Lemme go!" (let me go)
– "Watcha gonna do?" (What are you
going to do?)
– "Whassup?" (What's up?)
EXAMPLES OF CASUAL:
 Use of contractions
 Use of slang words.
 Use of simplified grammar
5. Intimate Style
 This style is used in conversations between
people who are very close and know each other
quite well because having a maximum of shared
background information
 It is characterized by an economy of words,
with a high incidence of significant nonverbal
communication, such as gesture, facial
expression, eye contact and so on.
 There is free and easy participation of both the
speaker and listener, and is far more elliptical
EXAMPLES OF INTIMATE SPEECH:
• Telling your bf/gf that you love
them
• Telling your best friend about your deepest
and darkest problems
• Asking your family for advice about serious
matters
SYNTHESIS
 The purpose of the different types of speech is to help
people know the specific approach they should use in
every situation person and place.
 Knowing these things can help one prevent
misunderstandings and arguments from happening
because if they don’t watch what they say, they’d look
disrespectful in front of others.
LESSON 5: COMMUNICATIVE
STRATEGIES
Communicative strategies
 Are attempts by participants in a communication
activity but mainly by the speaker to express his or her
ideas in a way that minimizes a breakdown in
communication.
 Are nomination, restriction, turn-taking, topic-control,
topic shifting, repair and termination. These are also
called as topic management.
1. Nomination
 When you employ this strategy, you try to open a
topic with the people you are talking to.
 When beginning a topic, you may start off with
news inquiries and news announcements as they
promise extended talk.
 Example:
- Have you noticed the weird weather
lately? Is this because of global
warming?
- I was late for class again! The MRT
stopped midway. What is wrong with
the MRT?
 Several Forms can be conveniently used for
topic nomination. They include the ff:
- Let's talk about...
- I would like to talk about... Today, I'm
going to discuss/talk about...
2. Restriction
 Any limitation you may have a speaker. When
communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or
while hanging out with your friends, you are
typically given specific instructions that you
must follow.
 For example, in your class, you might be asked
by your teacher to brainstorm on peer pressure or
deliver a speech on digital natives. In these
cases, cannot decide to talk about something
else.
 Remember to always be on point and avoid
sideswiping from the topic during the
conversation to avoid communication
breakdown.
3. Turn-taking
 The process by which people decide who takes
the conversation floor.
 The primary idea is give all to communicators a
chance to speak.
 Remember to keep your words relevant and
reasonably short enough to express your views
or feelings.
 To acknowledge others, you may employ visual
signals like a nod, a look, or a step back.
Accompanied with spoken cues such as
- "What do you think?" or "You
wanted to say something?"
4. Topic Control
 Covers how procedural formality or informality
affects the development of topic in
conversations.
 For example, in meetings, you may only have a
turn to speak after the chairperson directs you to
do so.
 You can make yourself actively involved in the
conversation without overly dominating it by
using minimal responses like "Yes," "Okay,"
"Go on"; asking tag questions to clarify
information briefly like "You are excited, aren't
you?", "It was unexpected, wasn't it?"; even by
laughing.
5. Topic Shifting
 Moving from one topic to another. In other
words, it is where one part of a conversation
ends and where another begins.
- "By the way,"
- "In addition to what you said,"
- "Which reminds me of,"
 Several Forms can be conveniently used to shift
a topic/discussion. They include the ff:
- Let us now turn to the issue/topic of... I
will now talk about...
 - In addition to (current topic), there is - This strategy is used particularly when
also the (next topic) at least one of the participants is not
6. Repair proficient in the language. It can also be
 Refers to how speakers address the problems in employed when the spoken utterances
speaking, listening, and comprehending that they are difficult to perceive due to a noisy
may encounter in a conversation. environment.
 Speakers will always try to address and correct if  Building On What Others Have Said
there is a problem in understanding the - It creates a connection between the
conversation. speaker and listeners because the
 Several Forms can be conveniently used to speaker affirms what others have
signal repair. They include the ff: already spoken, giving them a sense of
- I mean... importance.
- What I mean is...
- Let me rephrase that...
- In other words...
- Let me say that again...
7. Termination
 Close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a
conversation.
 Most of the time, the topic initiator takes
responsibility to signal the end of the discussion
as well.
 Several Forms can be conveniently used to
terminate a discussion. They include the ff:
- Let me end by saying...
- In conclusion...
- In summary…
- We were able to discuss...

Preventing Communication Breakdown

 A breakdown in communication is always possible in
any interaction. However, we can minimize
communication breakdown by employing several
strategies.
 These strategies can be collectively described as
communication support strategies.
 Asking for Clarification
- This is the most common way of
preventing a breakdown in
communication.
- In formality of situation, "what" is
impolite. However, it is acceptable for
clarification between close friends.
- Informal
 What?
 Can you say that again?
 Pardon?
 What did you just say?
 Say again? (or Say again, as a
command)
- Formal
 May I request you to repeat what
you said?
 Could you please say that again?
 I'm sorry?
 Repetition
- A speaker may repeat what he or she
said if he or she feels that the listeners
did not understand fully what was said.
However, too much repetition can
irritate listeners.
 Rephrasing
- It involves repeating the same message
using different words or expressions.
Listeners, especially ones who are not
very good in the language spoken may
not be familiar with a certain word,
phrase, or expression. One particular
element that may need rephrasing is an
idiom.
 Using Non-verbal Language