Tutorial 1 – Technology Core

Benjamin | Senior Research Associate IKEM

Agenda

Start End Topic

09:30 10:30 Intro & Sustainability

10:30 12:00 Energy

12:00 12:30 Group Exercise

12:30 12:45 Compare Exercise

12.05.2021 4
Tutorial 1: Introduction and Sustainability
Benjamin | Senior Research Associate IKEM
Structure Introduction & Sustainability

1
Energy – some numbers

2
The energy trilemma

3
The concept and urgency of sustainability

4
Tools for sustainability analyses

Slide 6 WS 2020/21
Energy consumption sky-rocked since the 1950s

Slide 7 Ourwoldindata (2021) WS 2020/21

While the first drivers of energy consumption were Europe and North America, Asia Pacific is today
responsible for most of the consumption.

Slide 8 Ourwoldindata (2021) WS 2020/21

Fossil fuels are still the most important energy resources in the world.

Ourwoldindata (2021) WS 2020/21 Slide 9

Fossil fuels are still the most important energy resources in the world.

Ourwoldindata (2021) WS 2020/21 Slide 10

Historic developments of shares of energy carriers

Page 11 Ourwoldindata (2021)

How does energy consumption and GDP correlate?

Slide 12 Ourwoldindata (2021): https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/energy-use-per-capita-vs-gdp-per-capita?yScale=log&time=1990..2015&country=~OWID_WRL WS 2020/21

For most countries, GDP growth is connected to an increase in energy demand until a certain level.

Energy per capita vs. GDP per capita

60000

50000

United States
GDP per capita (current US$)

40000
Germany
France
United Kingdom
30000
China
United Arab Emirates
India
20000
Japan
Morocco
Russian Federation
10000

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita)

Slide 13 World bank (2020) WS 2020/21

Global population is still growing → increase in energy demand is foreseeable.

Slide 14 UN (2019) WS 2020/21

Population and gross domestic product (GDP) are increasing.
→The need for natural resources will grow.

10 300000

billion people
9

250000

TODAY
8 OUTLOOK

7
200000

5 150000

100000
3

2
50000

0 0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

Population World Population EU GDP World GDP EU-27

Slide 16 Source: Worldbank (2012a); UN.ESA (2012b); OECD (2011). WS 2020/21

CO2-Emissions sky-rocked in line with the increase in energy demand (from fossil fuels)

Slide 17 WS 2020/21
Structure

1
Energy – some numbers

2
The energy trilemma

3
The concept and urgency of sustainability

4
Tools for sustainability analyses

Slide 19 WS 2020/21
The supply of energy is a field of tension between different interests.

The 2016 report identifies five areas where countries have

focused efforts to drive progress on the energy trilemma goals:

transforming energy supply

advancing energy access

addressing affordability

improving energy efficiency and managing

demand

decarbonising the energy sector.

Source: WEC (2016) WS 2020/21 Slide 20

These ideas can as well be found in European (and even German) energy policies.

The clean energy for all Europeans package focuses on

strengthening CO2-neutral and renewable energy supply
under consideration of the objectives of a more secure, clean
and competitive energy supply.

Source: WEC (2016) ; EC(2019) WS 2020/21 Slide 21

How do the three objectives interact?

Challenges:
Energy 1 1. A high level of security of supply is very costly, as reserve
trilemma capacities are needed (especially if there is a high
Secure proportion of renewable energy), which must be available
energy at all times.
supplies for
reliable 2. Sustainable energy consumption (and production) implies,
provision of
energy that fossil fuels need to fade out as well as discussions on
resource usage for renewables need to be started. Further,
land use, as well as social aspects of sustainable
consumptions need to be kept in mind and increase prices
2 3
as well work again security of supply.
Energy Policy
3. Affordable prices are especially important from an
Sustainable Competitive economic and social perspective – but counteract [1] and
energy environment
consumption that ensures
[2] until a certain extend.
and affordable
production prices

WS 2020/21 Slide 22
How do the three objectives interact?

Due to climate change as one of (or even the) leading

problem / challenge of our society on a long* run, sustainable
Energy 1 energy production became a focus in the trilemma, e.g. by:
trilemma
◦ Clean energy for all Europeans (EU)
Secure ◦ European Green Deal (EU)
energy
supplies for ◦ Green New Deal (USA – Democrats)
reliable ◦ "green recovery" from the covid-19 pandemic (UK)
provision of
energy ◦ …

2 3
Energy Policy

Sustainable Competitive
energy environment
consumption that ensures
and affordable
production prices

*Attention: Long means 7 years until reaching the max. amount of CO2 for keeping 1.5°C, 25 Years for 2°C WS 2020/21 Slide 23
Global Warming – Mechanism

▪ The two most abundant gases in the atmosphere, nitrogen

(comprising 78% of the dry atmosphere) and oxygen
(comprising 21%), exert almost no greenhouse effect.

▪ Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas, and

carbon dioxide (CO2) is the second-most important one.
Methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and several other gases
present in the atmosphere in small amounts also
contribute to the greenhouse effect.

▪ In the industrial era, human activities have added

greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, primarily through
the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests. Adding
more of a greenhouse gas, such as CO2, to the
atmosphere intensifies the greenhouse effect, thus
warming the Earth’s climate.

Page 24 Source: IPCC (2007) WS 2020/21

Climate change will trigger various events, with a probability of occurrence depending on the
temperature.

Level of risk 100%

Level of risk 50%
Level of risk 0%

The IPCC “Burning Embers Diagram“ visualises impacts of global warming

(no complete list)

Page 25 Source: Lenton / Schellnhuber (2007)

Paris agreement – stop climate change. Background 1/2

Development of yearly average world temperatures since

1850 shows impact of CO2-Emissions.*

The anthropogenic climate change is proven. There is no

other reason left.

To keep the world average temperature below 2°C, we have

to act FAST.

Today Average tempertures?

Ourworldindata(2021), *recommendation: watch „An Inconvenient Truth“ by Al Gore (2006!) Page 27

Paris agreement – stop climate change. Background 1/2

Development of yearly average world temperatures since

1850 shows impact of CO2-Emissions.*

The anthropogenic climate change is proven. There is no

other reason left.

To keep the world average temperature below 2°C, we have

to act FAST.

Today average temperatures?

Ourworldindata(2021), NASA(2020), *recommendation: watch „An Inconvenient Truth“ by Al Gore (2006!) Page 28
Goals of the Paris agreement – keep the world “cool”

At the Paris climate conference (COP21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted the first-ever universal, legally binding
global climate deal. The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate
change by limiting global warming to well below 2°C (in general understand as 1.5°C).

Mitigation: reducing emissions

Governments agreed
◦ a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels;
◦ to aim to limit the increase to 1.5°C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change;
◦ on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognising that this will take longer for developing countries;
◦ to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with the best available science.

Before and during the Paris conference, countries submitted comprehensive national climate action plans (NDCs).
These are not yet enough to keep global warming below 2°C, but the agreement traces the way to achieving this target.

Page 29 Source: EU COM 2020

Next to “production” of energy causing CO2-Emissions, consumption needs to be sustainable as well as
other aspects of sustainability need to be considered

Every not consumed kilowatt-hour of energy is more then 1kWh which doesn’t need to be produced and thus, can’t pollute our
environment!
◦ Consume as less energy as possible!

Consider what kind of energy are you consuming:

◦ If you consume electricity, is it renewable?
◦ If you want to travel, is there a way to not use (or at least reduce the use of) fossil fuels?
◦ If you need to heat your room, what fuel is used?

And: Is the renewable energy “produced” sustainable?

Slide 30 WS 2020/21
despite climate change and other environmental problems, energy should also be affordable from a
social point of view.

How much do you spend on energy per year?

Energy 1
trilemma
Secure
energy
supplies for
reliable
provision of
energy

2 3
Energy Policy

Sustainable Competitive
energy environment
consumption that ensures
and affordable
production prices

WS 2020/21 Slide 31
despite climate change and other environmental problems, energy should also be affordable from a
social point of view.

How much do you spend on energy per year?

◦ US: ~3000$ (2014)
Energy 1 ◦ Germany: ~3400 € (2018)
trilemma
◦ Denmark: see below
Secure
energy
supplies for
reliable
provision of
energy

2 3
Energy Policy

Sustainable Competitive
energy environment
consumption that ensures
and affordable
production prices

US Department of energy (2014), EC(2016b) WS 2020/21 Slide 32

Sustainable management needs to incorporate all pillars of sustainability.
Main Goal: economic efficiency, but on the long-term sustainable management leads to a successful company.

Economic Efficiency

Economy
Eco-efficiency Social efficiency

Integration
Ecology Social affairs

Eco-Effectivity Social effectivity

Page 34 Source: BMU (2007).

Structure

1
Energy – some numbers

2
The energy trilemma

3
The concept and urgency of sustainability

4
Tools for sustainability analyses

Slide 35 WS 2020/21
The underlying idea of sustainability: Do not overload any system!

…however, each of our actions influences our environment.

The „3Ps of sustainability“ (also: three columns of sustainability) form the framework of sustainability today:

“Profit / Prosperity“

Economic

Sustainability

“Planet“ Environmental Social “People“

Slide 36 WS 2020/21
18th Century : Enlightenment

Hans Carl von Carlowitz Immanuel Kant

(1645 – 1714) (1724 – 1804)

German tax accountant and mining administrator German Philiospher

Sustainability in the context of forestry (1713) Sape aude! – Dare to make use of your own reason! (1784)

„Sylvicultura oeconomica“ (1813) And take responsibility for your own actions:

Do not chop down more trees than can re-grow in a reasonable time frame Categorical imperative: „Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same
time, will that it should become a universal law“

Source: von Carlowitz(1713) Kant (1784) Page 37

1983 /87: The WCED and the Brundtland Report

The UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or Brundtland Commission (named after its Chair, Gro
Harlem Brundtland) was convened in 1983.

It was created to address growing concerns about the deterioration of the human environment and the natural resources.

Its work resulted in the publishing of the “Brundtland Report” in 1987.

Page 38 Sources: UN (1987)

1983 /87: The WCED and the Brundtland Report

The UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or Brundtland Commission (named after its Chair, Gro
Harlem Brundtland) was convened in 1983.

It was created to address growing concerns about the deterioration of the human environment and the natural resources.

Its work resulted in the publishing of the “Brundtland Report” in 1987.

Definition:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”

Page 39 Sources: UN (1987)

1983 /87: The WCED and the Brundtland Report

The UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or Brundtland Commission (named after its Chair, Gro
Harlem Brundtland) was convened in 1983.

It was created to address growing concerns about the deterioration of the human environment and the natural resources.

Its work resulted in the publishing of the “Brundtland Report” in 1987.

Definition:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”

The report contained two main concepts

1. the concept of ‚needs‘, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given

2. the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet
present and future needs.

Page 40 Sources: UN (1987)

 Historical Background – Developing the sustainable development goals

2015: SDGs
2012:
Rio + 20
1992: Rio de
Janeiro
1987:
Brundlandt
Report
1972: UN
Conference
on
Environment
1713: H.C. v. Carlowitz / 1972: and
Immanuel Kant Development
Club of
Rome

Page 41
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Page 42 Source: UN (2015)

SDG 13

Source: UN (2020) (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal13) Page 43

SDG 11

Source: UN (2020) (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal11). Page 44

SDG 7

Source: UN (2020) (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal7 Page 45

Definition and Dimensions of Sustainability / Sustainable Development

social
From Latin „sustenere“ → To sustain, meaning „maintain, support, uphold, endure“

Sustain and Ability

Three pillars of sustainability as already pointed out in the Agenda 21: ecologic economic

„Sustainable development encompasses social, economic and environmental dimensions“

The Tripple Bottom Line:

◦ People, the social equity bottom line
◦ Planet, the environmental bottom line
◦ Profit, the economic bottom line

Strong sustainability vs. Weak sustainability

◦ Strong sustainability (i.e. natural capital must remain constant, "constant natural capital rule")
◦ Weak sustainability (i.e. total capital should remain constant, "non declining utility rule")
◦ The transition is smooth.
There are also forms ranging from very weak sustainability to strict sustainability.

Page 46 Source: UN (1992); Holzbauer (2020)

There are six types of capital in the area of sustainability

Weak and strong sustainability is based on the idea that different types of capital exist

Types of capital (see SRU, p.59):

1. physical capital (man-made, e.g. fishing vessels)
2. Natural capital (e.g. shoals of fish, primeval forests, ...)
3. "Cultivated natural capital" (e.g. livestock herds, salmon farms, forests, orchards)
4. Social capital (moral orientation knowledge, institutions),
5. Human capital (education, skills)
6. Knowledge capital (stored and retrievable)

Seite 47 Quelle: SRU (2002) 05.01.2022

There are six types of capital in the area of sustainability

Weak and strong sustainability is based on the idea that different types of capital exist

Types of capital (see SRU, p.59):

1. physical capital (man-made, e.g. fishing vessels)
2. Natural capital (e.g. shoals of fish, primeval forests, ...)
3. "Cultivated natural capital" (e.g. livestock herds, salmon farms, forests, orchards)
Neither strong nor weak sustainability has established itself as the sole
4. Social capital (moral orientation knowledge, institutions),
concept, but both can come to the same logical conclusion:
5. Human capital (education, skills)
→ According to economic logic, investments should be made in the
6. Knowledge capital (stored and retrievable)
limiting factor of production. In view of the ongoing destruction of
nature, the limiting factor is increasingly not physical but natural
capital.

→ Thus, a further transformation from natural capital to another capital

is not recommendable under both concepts.

Seite 48 Quelle: SRU (2002) 05.01.2022

Tragedy of the commons

Limited, freely available resources are not managed sustainably,

but are threatened by overuse.

Collapse of companies*
1. Environmental damage (soil erosion, salinization Easter Island)
2. Climate Fluctuations
3. Hostile neighbors
4. Elimination of trading partners
5. Wrong reaction of the society to change

Solutions for the management of resources that are threatened by overuse:

• State Model
• Company model
• Collective forms of use with regional self-organization of the participants**

Seite 49 *Jared M. Diamond, „Kollaps: Warum Gesellschaften überleben oder untergehen“, ** See also Elinor Ostrom 05.01.2022
Structure

1
Energy – some numbers

2
The energy trilemma

3
The concept and urgency of sustainability

4
Tools for sustainability analyses

Slide 50 WS 2020/21
Factors for evaluating social sustainability

Social sustainability is especially important in value chain

analysis, as corporate social responsibility (CSR) often include
measuring ALL pillars of sustainability

Generally, Kant’s categoric imperative links as well to the

social pillar

However, the “measurement” of the social pillar is a lot more

complex then for the economic and ecologic pillar, as there
exist several well known (engineering) methods

Table 1: Mani et al (2016) WS 2020/21 Slide 51

Economic sustainability is often measured in econimic indicators like ROI.

Economic pillar is connected to measuring the outcome of an

investment

Idea:
◦ Only investments which result in a financially positive outcome
should be done
◦ Any activity needs to be judged, whether it is economic or not,
independent of the effect to other pillars of sustainability

E.g.:
◦ You will only install insulation at a building, if this at least is a zero-
sum game.
◦ You will only by an electric car, if it is at least as cheap as a fuel-
based car.

WS 2020/21 Slide 52
Analytic tools to evaluate environmental aspect of sustainability

Different tools exist to evalute the sustainability of a certain product, service or system:

(1) Cumulated Energy Demand (CED)

(2) Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI)/ Harvesting factor

(3) Grey Energy / Embodied Energy (EE)

(4) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

The tools are intended to evaluating parts of / all environmental impacts of a product/service/system over a certain period of
its life / its whole lifespan

The focus is on the energy use and its implications as indicator for its sustainability.

The economic or social dimension of sustainability is not explicitely investigated here.

Slide 53 WS 2020/21
Analytic tools to evaluate Sustainability (1):
Cumulative Energy Demand (CED)

Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) Cumulated Energy Demand (CED) =

Sometimes also called It is the total primary energy demand required for the extraction (ex),
production (P), during use (U) and the disposal (D) of a
◦ “Cumulated Energy Requirement” or product/service/system.
◦ “primary energy consumption”
CEDex (total primary energy demand required for the
Based on VDI Guideline 4600 extraction)

It is the sum of the primary energy demand associated with + CEDP (the production)
the whole life cylce of a product.

It covers extraction, production, manufaction, usage and + CEDU (during use)

disposal

Unit: MJ per unit + CEDD (the disposal)

CED= CEDex + CEDP+ CEDU + CEDD

Source: VDI 4600; Zweifel/Praktiknjo/Erdmann (2017) p.28 WS 2020/21 Slide 54

Analytic tools to evaluate Sustainability (1):
Cumulative Energy Demand (CED)

1. System boundaries:

First, the system boundaries of the product/system need to be defined.

Definitions:
• System: a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: the mass or region outside the system
• Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from ist sourrindings

2. Energy balance

In a second step the energy and material flows within those boundaries need to be identified

3. Analysis

Possible analytic approaches for taking balance of all energy and material flows are the Input-Output-Analysis or a process chain
analysis
Definitions:
• Process: the activity of using resources to enable the transformation of inputs into outputs
• Process chain: A process chain illustrates the processes, as part of a system, and the relations between them.

Slide 55 Source: Cengel/Boles (2015) p.10; EN ISO 9000:2005 WS 2020/21

Process chain analysis – Cumulative Energy Demand

The total primary energy Mechanical

engineering
demand of each process
chain step is identified Structural Plant
and summed up for one engineering engineering Functional
functional unit. unit
Electrical
engineering

divers
Extraction processes Use

divers
Extraction processes Disposal

Definition: A functional unit is a quantified description of the function of a product. It serves as reference basis for all
calculations regarding the impact assessment

Slide 56 WS 2020/21
Process chain analysis – Cumulative Energy Demand

Examples for functional units:

Mechanical
engineering

Structural Plant
engineering engineering 1 l Red Wine

Electricial
engnieering

divers
Extraction Use 1 kWh
processes

divers
Extraction processes Disposal
6000h of lightening
with 1000 lumen

Slide 57 WS 2020/21
Analytic tools to evaluate Sustainability (2): Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI)

Energy Return on Energy Invested EROEI =

The CED can be used to calculate the harvesting factor/ the

energy payback ratio of a power plant.

Harvesting factor = Energy Return On Energy Invested (EROEI),

sometimes also called Energy Returned on Energy Invested EROEI
(ERoEI)
Output
=
Input
It indicates how often a plant recovers the cumulative energy
Energy Delivered
demand (CED) during its lifetime. =
Energy Required to Deliver that Energy

A high ratio of the harvesting factor indicates a good energetic

performance, which does not necessarily correlate with the
environmental performance.

WS 2020/21 Slide 58
Analytic tools to evaluate Sustainability (2): Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI)

Energy Return on Energy Invested EROEI =

The CED can be used to calculate the harvesting factor/ the

energy payback ratio of a power plant.

Harvesting factor = Energy Return On Energy Invested (EROEI),

sometimes also called Energy Returned on Energy Invested EROEI
(ERoEI)
Output
=
Input
It indicates how often a plant recovers the cumulative energy
Energy Delivered
demand (CED) during its lifetime. =
Energy Required to Deliver that Energy

A high ratio of the harvesting factor indicates a good energetic For calculating the indicators,
performance, which does not necessarily correlate with the
software is needed.
environmental performance.

WS 2020/21 Slide 59
Using GEMIS*

Slide 60 GEMIS can be downloaded here: http://iinas.org/installing-gemis.html, it‘s possible to use in English, however, names are often still German… WS 2020/21
Using GEMIS*

Slide 61 GEMIS can be downloaded here: http://iinas.org/installing-gemis.html WS 2020/21

Using GEMIS* -. Example of power mix in Germany

Principally:
◦ Use Products PD1 and PD2 to feed in into Process PC1,
which can create a Product PD3
◦ Use Scenarios for calculate environmental impacts for
certain amounts of a product, produced by the beforehand
defined processes

Thus:
◦ GEMIS allows you to create LCAs for many different
functional units or objects
◦ You can export the results to excel and create graphics
◦ Use the data base of already created processes and
products (~12.000 entries)

Slide 62 WS 2020/21
Some things to take away…

Our world is currently focusing on growth in every dimension

This leads (currently) to:

◦ Increase in energy demand
◦ Increase in resource demand
◦ Increase in CO2-emissions
◦ …

Sustainability means fulfilling the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to fulfill their own
needs. This is in contrast to our current lifestyle.

There are three columns / dimensions of sustainability: 3Ps or economy, environment and social dimension

There is no definition of one dimension being superior to the others, however, it’s questionable to

The sustainable development goals might help to save our planet

There exist several methods to analyze the environmental impacts of our (economical) behavior, as well as economic tools to
calculate the “value” of a production / good / functional unit

To measure the social dimension is a complex and difficult challenge, which should always be considered

Slide 63 WS 2020/21
Energy – BREAK
Tutorial 1 – Technology Core: Energy
Benjamin | Senior Research Associate IKEM
Structure Energy

1
Basic variables and relations

2
Laws of thermodynamics and energy balances

3
Thermodynamic Cycles

4
Basics of power plant technology

Slide 66 WS 2020/21
Overview of Energy System Research and Analysis

Definition of energy
▪ Investigation of the structural elements of a system, i.e. the representation of how the system works
system analysis
Goals of systems research ▪ Support decisions in energy policy and energy research with regard to technologies and infrastructures for
and systems analysis energy supply and energy conversion on a knowledge-based and systematic basis

▪ Study of energy systems of different dimensions: It can be the global, the European, a national, a district,
Properties of investigated an industrial site or a house.
systems
▪ Distinction between the investigation of "energy futures" and "technology-related" system analyses

▪ "What could/should the energy system of the future (in a target year to be defined) look like, if on the one
hand the emission reduction targets of the European Union in Germany are to be achieved and on the
Examples other hand the nuclear power phase-out is to be maintained?”

▪ "How does the LCA of a heat pump compare to an oil boiler?"

Slide 67 Source: Möst, Dominik and Fichtner, Wolf (2008) WS 2020/21

A system is the ”number of related items that are seen as a whole in a certain context and are
distinguished from their surroundings.”

The system will be considered as delimited from the

environment and other external systems by an imaginary
enveloping surface, through which the links between these
systems and the system under consideration are passing.“

Thermodynamic processes can be understood as a mutual

influence of system and environment or of two systems
among themselves. The influence takes place by transfer of
energy.

Types of energy transfer

Mechanical Thermal Through material flow

Different types of energy (e.g. kinetic energy)

Energy in the form of work (W) Energy in the form of heat (Q) is transferred
cross the system boundary
crosses the system boundary across the system boundaries
with the material flow

Source: Thielen (2011), IEC 2013 WS 2020/21 Slide 68

System Types

Isolated system
Example: Thermos flask

▪ Matter and energy impermeable

▪ No energy transit possible

Closed system
Example:
Closed cylinder of a combustion engine
▪ Matter impermeable
▪ Energy transfer in the form of:
− Work
− Heat

Open system
Example:
▪ Matter permeable Cooled turbo compressor
▪ Energy transfer in the form of:
− Work
− Heat
− Material-flow-bound energy transport

Page 69
Models represent simple pictures of systems, which we can use to analyse the systems’ behaviour.

In order to be able to describe and analyse the world, we divide the system "world" into smaller and smaller pieces, into
System subsystems, and these in turn into sub-sub-systems etc. The resulting systems are often analysed with the help of
mathematical methods.

Basic principle: constructing (model) simplified description of complex systems. These descriptions (models) can have a
Model mathematical form, e.g. a system of equations.
With the help of a model, a complicated system can be simplified. A model is therefore not a copy of the real system.

A model is closely related to the purpose of the problem being investigated. The problem determines the system, system
boundaries and the relevant system parameters.

Quickly setting up a conceptual model using a box representation:

− Imagine the system as box, the border is the system boundary.
− Inside the box: System variables 𝑎𝑖
− Entering the system: variables, which
represent relations between environment
From system to model
and system (input variables), e.g. mass
flow, solar radiation, air temperature etc.
− Leaving the system: variables representing
effects the environment
− Use arrows to represent the direction of the
effect

The number of system variables describes the dimension of the model.

Page 70 Source: Imboden (2008)

Definition of a model

A model is a simplified representation of a real system and consisting of elements and relations.

Characteristics:
◦ Representation: A model is a simplified representation of the original.

◦ Simplification: A model simplifies the original and reflects only the relevant attributes.

◦ Pragmatism: A model is used and interpreted by a model user for a particular purpose.

“Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful”

(George E. P. Box (1919 –2013))

Slide 71 WS 2020/21
Analysis of a simple technical system

The System analysis is a system-technical way of describing a system through:

Elements, here: by "macroscopic coordinates"

(state variables: pressure, temperature, volume and characteristics: type and composition of the gas, etc.)

A cause-effect-relationship, here: energy is converted in transition from a systems state of equilibrium to another equilibrium
state of the same system (movement of the piston).

Slide 72 WS 2020/21
State and Process Variables

State variables Process variables

Thermal (depend on the Caloric (describe the energy
prevailing temperature) content of a system) Work: 𝑊
Internal energy: 𝑈 Power: 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊Τ𝑑𝑡
Temperature: 𝑇
Specific internal energy: 𝑢=U/m
Enthalpy: 𝐻
Pressure: 𝑝
Specific enthalpy: ℎ: = 𝐻/𝑚 Heat: 𝑄
Entropy: S Heat flow: 𝑄ሶ = 𝑑𝑄ൗ𝑑𝑡
Volume: 𝑉
Specific entropy: 𝑠: = 𝑆/𝑚

Extensive properties: Property, whose value results from the division of a system as sum of the
corresponding state variables of the parts: 𝑍 = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐶 + …
Intensive properties: Properties that are not additive when dividing a system or joining subsystems into
a complete system.
Absolute properties: Not related to a uniform basis.
If one divides the extensive size 𝑍 of a system by its mass, its amount of matter or its volume, one gets
specific quantity, molar quantity and density. They are all intensive sizes:
- Specific quantity: 𝑧 ≔ 𝑍/𝑚
- Molar quantity: 𝑍𝑚 = 𝑍/𝑛
- Density: 𝑍𝑉 ≔ 𝑍/𝑉

Slide 73 WS 2020/21
Energy Units, Definitions, Conversion Factors

1) Oil equivalent
2) Prefixes
Coal equivalent
Nano n 10-9 A billionths
3) Kilocalorie Micro u 10-6 A millionths
4) Kilowatt hour Milli m 10-3 A thousandths
5) British Thermal Unit Centi c 10-2 A hundredths
Kilo k 103 thousand
Mega M 106 Million (dt. „Million“)
Oil: barrels (bbl); Giga G 109 Billion (dt. „Milliarde)
1 bbl = 159 l ≈ ca. 0.136 t Tera T 1012 Trillion (dt. „Billion“)
Peta P 1015 Quadrillion
Gas: 1 cubic feet / day = 10.34 m3/year
Exa E 1018 Quintillion
Source: Own presentation based on AGEB (2008)

Page 15
Structure Energy

1
Basic variables and relations

2
Laws of thermodynamics and energy balances

3
Thermodynamic Cycles

4
Basics of power plant technology

Slide 75 WS 2020/21
First law of thermodynamics - conservation of energy

Principle of conservation of energy:

Energy of a constant mass can neither be “produced” nor “destroyed”, it is conserved.

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡 + 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Energy balance equation for open systems:

The change in energy of an open system is equal to the sum of supplied or discharged work and heat, plus the energy of the
supplied and extracted mass.

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑄12 + 𝑊12 + 𝑒𝑒 Δ𝑚𝑒

Slide 76 WS 2020/21
Energy of a system (energy level)

Examples for “U”:

• Thermal kinetic energy of the molecules in a body, a liquid, or within a gas (measured as temperature)
• Force effect of the moving molecules hitting the system boundaries (measured as pressure)
• Binding energy between the molecules of a substance or the atoms of a molecule (chemical energy)
• Binding energy between the components of an atomic nucleus (nuclear energy)

Slide 77 WS 2020/21
How to look at transient (or unsteady) flow process?

During the time Δ𝑡 following elements are crossing the system boundary:
• the mass element Δ𝑚𝑒
• the heat flow 𝑄ሶ
• the mechanical power 𝑃

Slide 78 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 79 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 80 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 81 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 82 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 83 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 84 WS 2020/21
Formula for transient (or unsteady) flow process

Slide 85 Baehr und Kabelac (2021) Thermodynamik, Springer-Lehrbuch S79ff. WS 2020/21

For steady state flow process, we can simplify this, as the mass is constant an we expect the energy
level to stay constant as well.

Slide 86 WS 2020/21
For steady state flow process, we can simplify this, as the mass is constant an we expect the energy
level to stay constant as well.

Slide 87 WS 2020/21
Further simplifications can be made for thermodynamic cycle processes (coming back to that in the
energy section)

Slide 88 WS 2020/21
The value of energy: Anergy and Exergy

Energy = Exergy + Anergy

Exergy = fully usable, unlimitedly convertible portion of the energy

(e.g. work)

Anergy = portion of the energy that is not usable in the considered environment
(“internal energy” on the state of the environment)

Simplified formulation of 2nd law of thermodynamics:

It is never possible to convert anergy into exergy.

Slide 89 WS 2020/21
The second law of thermodynamics –
or entropy as a measure of usefulness of Energy

General formulation for 2nd law of thermodynamics:

“All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are nothing else then idealized boarder line cases of irreversible
processes.”

Slide 90 WS 2020/21
The second law of thermodynamics –
or entropy as a measure of usefulness of Energy

General formulation for 2nd law of thermodynamics:

“All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are nothing else then idealized boarder line cases of irreversible
processes.”

Entropy S:

The entropy is a state variable for quantitative measurement of irreversibility.

Slide 91 WS 2020/21
The second law of thermodynamics –
or entropy as a measure of usefulness of Energy

General formulation for 2nd law of thermodynamics:

“All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are nothing else then idealized boarder line cases of irreversible
processes.”

Entropy S:

The entropy is a state variable for quantitative measurement of irreversibility.

The entropy of a system is changed by:

𝑄
• Heat transport across the system boundary: 𝑆𝑄 =
𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒

• Irreversible processes (friction): 𝑆𝑖𝑟𝑟

• Material/mass transport across the system boundary

→ For a closed system (m = 0) follows: Δ𝑆 = 𝑆𝑄 + 𝑆𝑖𝑟𝑟

Slide 92 WS 2020/21
Entropy balances for closed systems

Slide 93 WS 2020/21
An entropy balance allows to calculate the maximum efficiency for an ideal heat engine and with this
the maximum of usable energy in heat.

Slide 94 WS 2020/21
By applying the entropy balance, we can estimate the exergy content of different types of energy!

Exergy share of the converted

Energy forms Examples for ideal conversion
energy
Epot - Potential energy Leverage 100%
Ekin - Kinetic energy Impact 100%
U - Internal energy:
• Charge energy (electricity) Movement of load carriers 100%
• Chemical binding energy Fuel cell ~ 100%
𝑄 ⋅ 𝜂𝐶 << 100% depending on
• Thermal energy Thermal engine
temperature level and ambient temperature:

Slide 95 WS 2020/21
Structure Energy

1
Basic variables and relations

2
Laws of thermodynamics and energy balances

3
Thermodynamic Cycles

4
Basics of power plant technology

Slide 96 WS 2020/21
Power plant processes – Gas- and Steamturbines and ideal processes

Gas turbines:
◦ Cheap in investment
◦ Expensive fuel (if no CO2-price exists)
◦ Relative low efficiency in open cycle

Steam turbines
◦ High investment
◦ In general cheaper fuel (depending on the process)
◦ Better efficiency then gas turbines

Ideal process: Carnot-Process

◦ Theoretically most efficient process
◦ Describes how much exergy is contained in a heat flow

Slide 97 WS 2020/21
How to measure the efficiency of a cycle?

WS 2020/21 Slide 98
Most efficient transformation from heat to useful exergy defined by the thermodynamic cycle by Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 Δs Tout
𝜂𝐶 = 1 − =1− (ATTENTION: All T in Kelvin!)
Tin Δ𝑠 Tin

Slide 99 Zeller (2013) WS 2020/21

Steam power plants use steam instead of gas for generating power, as shown in the simplified wiring
diagram of a steam power plant.

Slide 100 WS 2020/21

There exists no “ideal” process in reality. Gas and steam turbines try to maximize the efficiency by
optimizing the processes in the direction of a Carnot process.

WS 2020/21 Slide 101

When ever dealing with steam, we have to keep in mind that water becomes steam at different
temperatures and pressures.

Slide 102 WS 2020/21

This leads to the specific form of the (ideal) Clausius-Ranking-Cycle

Slide 103 Zeller (2013) WS 2020/21

Optimizing steam power plant by using reheating and several turbines – simple wiring diagram

Slide 104 WS 2020/21

Nuclear power plants are as well steam power plants as
geothermal or solar thermal power plants.

WS 2020/21 Slide 105

In comparison to steam power plants, gas power plants are working on higher temperature levels and a
lot more flexible.

Function:

Compressor: A compressor is a machine that transfers

pressure energy to a working fluid. It transfers energy by
dynamic means from a rotating part to a continuously flowing
fluid.

Combustion Chamber: In the combustion chamber, burning

increases the temperature of the high-pressure gas.

Turbine: The turbine converts the energy of the hot, high-

pressure gas into rotation.

Generator: A generator finally generates electricity from the

rotation.

WS 2020/21 Slide 106

Joule-cycle of a closed gas turbine (J.P. Joule, 1818-1889)

Slide 110 WS 2020/21

Combining gas and steam cycles even increases the efficiency for (pure) power plants (up to 60% of
efficiency).

Slide 111 WS 2020/21

Basic Idea of combined cycle power plants (CCPP)

Circuit Diagram T,s-Diagram (sketch)

In the combination of gas and steam turbines, a gas turbine

drives a generator to produce electricity.

Very hot exhaust gases from the gas turbine is transferred to

a steam power process via a heat exchanger.

This allows the advantages of both processes:

◦ the high inlet temperature of the gas turbine with the lower waste
heat temperatures in the water-steam process.
◦ The utilization of the very high temperature difference leads to very
high efficiency levels.

Source: Strauss (2016), energie-strom.de (2015), Marchwoodpower WS 2020/21 Slide 112

Advantages of a CCPP

Profitability Operation

▪ high efficiency ▪ simple construction

▪ Low specific investment, operating and maintenance costs ▪ step-by-step expansion possible
▪ short amortization period (10-12 years) ▪ short delivery times (18-24 months order/delivery)
▪ low start-up losses ▪ low personnel requirements
▪ high partial load efficiency ▪ locations close to consumers
▪ short approval procedure ▪ short starting times
▪ high reliability (96-99 %)
▪ high availability (92-96 %)

Environmental compatibility: Future perspectives:

▪ low requirement of cooling water ▪ further improvements in performance and efficiency

▪ low pollutant emissions
▪ low space requirement

Slide 113 WS 2020/21

CCPP are “very efficient” – but how to calculate efficiencies?

Slide 114 WS 2020/21

CCPP are “very efficient” – but how to calculate efficiencies?

Attention: Efficiency only describes a “point in time” not a period!

Slide 115 WS 2020/21

If different systems are connected – in general multiply the efficiencies!

Slide 116 WS 2020/21

Group Work
Calculation & Presentation
Group work

At the following slides, there are some (calculation) exercises.

Please:

1. Do the calculation exercises / answer the questions on your own as fare as you get (~30min).

2. We compare the results together and you will present the results to the others (~15min). If there are any questions, we can
discuss them.

If you are not able to do exercises – don‘t worry!

There will be a Q&A-Session later this semester, where you can ask all questions!

Slide 121 WS 2020/21

Group Work
Calculation & Presentation
The conversion of primary energy into useful energy

Name the first law of thermodynamics: 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (or conservation of energy)

Name the second law of thermodynamics: “All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are nothing else then
idealized boarder line cases of irreversible processes.”

Name the form of energy at the end of each step of the following process and calculate roughly the overall energetic and
exegetic efficiency of the following processes (consider an ideal processes if no information is given):
1. Electricity is produced in a CCPP with 60% exergetic and energetic efficiency
2. Transported to your household (5% transmission losses)
3. You use the electricity for backing at 200°C, while you can use 80% of the heat flow created by the “arriving” electricity and your kitchen
has 20°C.

Page 123
The conversion of primary energy into useful energy

Name the first law of thermodynamics: 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (or conservation of energy)

Name the second law of thermodynamics: “All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are nothing else then
idealized boarder line cases of irreversible processes.”

Name the form of energy at the end of each step of the following process and calculate roughly the overall energetic and
exegetic efficiency of the following processes (consider an ideal processes if no information is given):
1. Electricity is produced in a CCPP with 60% exergetic and energetic efficiency
2. Transported to your household (5% transmission losses)
3. You use the electricity for backing at 200°C, while you can use 80% of the heat flow created by the “arriving” electricity and your kitchen
has 20°C.

Solution:
1. Secondary energy, 2. final energy 3. useful energy

◦ 𝜂𝑒𝑛 = 100% ⋅ 60% ⋅ 95% ⋅ 80% = 45.6%

273.15+20
◦ 𝜂𝑒𝑥 = 100% ⋅ 60% ⋅ 95% ⋅ 80% ⋅ 1 − = 17.3%
273.15+200

Page 124
Energy content of battery and heat storage

How much energy and exergy in [J] is in:

4.18𝑘𝐽
1. One kilogram of water (𝑐𝑝 = ) with a temperature of 100°C and an ambient temperature of 20°C?
𝑘𝑔⋅𝐾

2. A battery with 1,5 V and 850 mAh?

Slide 125 *for exam preparation also try conversion into: kWh, toe, etc. WS 2020/21
Energy content of battery and heat storage

How much energy and exergy in [J] is in:

4.18𝑘𝐽
1. One kilogram of water (𝑐𝑝 = ) with a temperature of 100°C and an ambient temperature of 20°C?
𝑘𝑔⋅𝐾

2. A battery with 1,5 V and 850 mAh?

Solution: As there is no kinetic or potential energy, only inner energy needs to be considered.

𝑘𝐽
1a) Energy: 𝑄 = 1𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑐𝑝 ⋅ Δ𝑇 → 𝑄 = 1𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 4,18 ⋅ 80𝐾 = 334,4𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔⋅𝐾

𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 293,15𝐾
1b) Exergy: 𝑛𝑐 = 1 − → 𝜂𝐶 = 1 − = 21,4% → 334,4 𝑘𝐽 ⋅ 21,4% = 71,6 𝑘𝐽
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 373,15𝐾

Slide 126 *for exam preparation also try conversion into: kWh, toe, etc. WS 2020/21
Energy content of battery and heat storage

How much energy and exergy in [J] is in:

4.18𝑘𝐽
1. One kilogram of water (𝑐𝑝 = ) with a temperature of 100°C and an ambient temperature of 20°C?
𝑘𝑔⋅𝐾

2. A battery with 1,5 V and 850 mAh?

Solution: As there is no kinetic or potential energy, only inner energy needs to be considered.

𝑘𝐽
1a) Energy: 𝑄 = 1𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑐𝑝 ⋅ Δ𝑇 → 𝑄 = 1𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 4,18 ⋅ 80𝐾 = 334,4𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔⋅𝐾

𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 293,15𝐾
1b) Exergy: 𝑛𝑐 = 1 − → 𝜂𝐶 = 1 − = 21,4% → 334,4 𝑘𝐽 ⋅ 21,4% = 71,6 𝑘𝐽
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 373,15𝐾

2a) 𝑊𝑒𝑙 = ∫ 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 → 1,5𝑉 ⋅ 850 ⋅ 10−3 𝐴 ⋅ 3600𝑠 = 4,59 𝑘𝐽

2b) Electricity is pure exergy, thus same as 2a)

Slide 127 *for exam preparation also try conversion into: kWh, toe, etc. WS 2020/21
Presentations
Any Questions?