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TPO74 阅读

R1

Early Horses

The earliest-known horse fossils come from the Eocene epoch (from 57 to 34

million years ago),and they are so different from the modern version that it

was not initially realized that there was any relation.Dawn horse,or

Eohippus,as this animal has been called,has been found in both Europe and

North America. Eohippus was tiny,about the size of a small dog,and

apparently lived in wooded areas.These animals had hooves but,in contrast to

modern horses,they had four hoofed toes on the front feet,three on the

rear,and the hooves were padded. Eohippus was also pug-nosed by

comparison to modern horses,and its teeth reveal that it was a browser that

fed on a variety of plants.In fact,although it was completely herbivorous (plant

eating),this little horse had canine teeth-a reminder that many of its

predecessors were carnivores (meat eaters).

Throughout the Eocene and Oligocene epochs (from 57 to 23 million years

ago),the descendants of Eohippus evolved in a fairly straightforward way that

is well documented by their fossils.They became gradually larger;the middle

toe, eventually to become the single hoof of the modern horses,became

stronger and more prominent,and the grinding surfaces of the teeth became

larger,with complex,resistant ridges.But the resemblance to Eohippus

remained clear.It was only in the Miocene (from 23 to 5 million years

ago),coincident with the spread of grassy prairies,that abrupt changes took

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place,resulting in several different lineages of horse evolution,only one of

which is still extant:the modern horse.

Several of the physical characteristics of today's animals are ultimately linked

to their diet of grasses. Foremost among the Miocene modifications that

led toward present-day horses were changes in the teeth and the shape of the

head. Compared to the succulent leaves of tropical trees that were the

fodder for some of the horse's ancestors, grasses are abrasive and much

more difficult to chew and grind. The response of the Miocene horses was to

develop teeth with much more elaborate and resistant grinding surfaces and

with much larger crowns,at least part of which could grow out of the gums as

they were worn down. These changes meant that the head had to be much

deeper,and the muzzle longer,to make room for the long rows of grinding

teeth along the horse's cheeks.At about the same time,the legs and feet of the

ancestors of today's horses became better adapted to rapid running across

the spreading grasslands.This occurred through fusion of several of the

independent bones in the lower parts of the legs,making them stiffer,and

through further emphasis of the central hoofed toe,which by now bore the

entire weight of the animal.In place of a foot,the horse has a single toe at the

end of its leg.

By the middle or late Miocene,many of the extant horses were at least

superficially similar to modern horses.Based on the fossil record,much of their

development seems to have occurred in North America,but by the

Pleistocene epoch (from 1.6 million to 10,000 years ago),the modern horse

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genus,Equus,had spread over much of the world.Then,inexplicably,only 8,000

to 10,000 years ago, horses disappeared from North America.The reason for

this extinction is unknown. Whatever the cause,it is a fact that the plains of

North America were without these animals for thousands of years,until

horses brought from Europe by the early Spanish explorers escaped and

began to repopulate the vast grasslands.

It is clear that many of the familiar features of the modern horse are directly or

indirectly related to its diet and its preferred environment,grasslands.But how

and why did the grasslands develop when they did?There are competing

theories on this question,but only a few are consistent with the evidence.Most

of these invoke a change in global climate as an important factor,perhaps the

overriding factor.In particular,grasslands expanded rapidly as the climate in

continental interiors became cooler and drier.

1. In paragraph 1,why does the author mention that Eohippus had canine
teeth?

A. To make the point that Eohippus evolved from ancestors with a diet
different from that of Eohippus
B. To explain why Eohippus’ teeth were so similar to those of its
predecessors
C. To show why scientists believe that Eohippus was exclusively herbivorous
D. To argue that physical features that originally evolved to serve one
purpose can later serve a different purpose

2. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following claims about the

evolution of the horse?

A. The ancestors of the modern horse changed more dramatically in the

Miocene than in the earlier Eocene and Oligocene epochs.
B. Most lineages of the modern horse that survived the Eocene and

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Oligocene epochs became extinct during the Miocene epoch.

C. During the Eocene and Oligocene epochs the horse lost all but the middle
toe on each foot.
D. There is little fossil evidence of how horses evolved during the Miocene
epoch.

3. The phrase "more elaborate"in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. Harder
B. Stronger
C. more complex
D. more effective

4. According to paragraph 3the shape of the horse's head changed in

response to the

A. increased difficulty of reaching the leaves of tropical trees

B. horse's need to become better adapted to running across grasslands
C. larger overall size of the horse's body
D. changes in the teeth required by the horse's diet

5. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as changes that

appeared in horses legs in the Miocene EXCEPT

A. Some independent leg bones fused together

B. The upper parts of the legs became strong enough to support the entire
body weight.
C. The lower legs became more rigid.
D. More stress was placed on the central hoofed toe.

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential

information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect
choices change the meaning in Important ways or leave out essential
information.
A. Early Spanish explorers captured horses from the plains of North America
and brought them to grasslands in order to repopulate those areas.
B. Horses did not populate the plains of North America until Spanish
explorers planted grassland to ensure survival of these animals.
C. Until the horses brought by Spanish explorers escaped the North
American plains did not have horses for thousands of years.
D. It is a fact that Spanish explorers did not intend their horses to escape and

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repopulate the grasslands of North America.

7. The word "overriding"in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. most reliable
B. dominant
C. most interesting
D. sole

8. According to paragraph 5,why are many theories about the

development of grasslands not likely to be true?

A. They assume that there was a change in global climate.

B. They cannot explain how a region can become cooler and drier at the
same time.
C. They conflict with some established facts.
D. They ignore competing theories.

9. Look at the four squares[ ]that indicate where the following sentence
could be added to the passage

Where would the sentence best fit?

Thus the teeth that had evolved in Eocene and Oligocene epochs were
not suited for life on the prairies of the Miocene.

Click on a square [ ] to add the sentence to the passage. To select a different

location, click on a different square

Several of the physical characteristics of today's animals are ultimately linked

to their diet of grasses. Foremost among the Miocene modifications that

led toward present-day horses were changes in the teeth and the shape of the

head. Compared to the succulent leaves of tropical trees that were the

fodder for some of the horse's ancestors, grasses are abrasive and much

more difficult to chew and grind. The response of the Miocene horses was to

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develop teeth with much more elaborate and resistant grinding surfaces and

with much larger crowns,at least part of which could grow out of the gums as

they were worn down. These changes meant that the head had to be much

deeper,and the muzzle longer,to make room for the long rows of grinding

teeth along the horse's cheeks.At about the same time,the legs and feet of the

ancestors of today's horses became better adapted to rapid running across

the spreading grasslands.This occurred through fusion of several of the

independent bones in the lower parts of the legs,making them stiffer,and

through further emphasis of the central hoofed toe,which by now bore the

entire weight of the animal.In place of a foot,the horse has a single toe at the

end of its leg.

10. Directions: An introductory sentence tor a brief summary of the passage is

provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the 3 answer choices
that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do
not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented
in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2
points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an
answer choice, click on it.To review the passage VIEW TEXT

The fossil record suggests the complexity of the horse's evolution.

A.Eohippus began to be called dawn horse after its relationship to the modern
horse was established through fossil evidence.
B.During the Eocene and Oligocene epochs,the descendants of the Eohippus
began to develop some of the characteristics associated with the modern
horse.
C.By the end of the Pleistocene, the modern horse,Equus,had spread over
much of the world but for reasons that are unclear,it disappeared from the
plains of North America for thousands of years.
D.By the end of the Eocene epoch,Eohippus’ nose had slowly developed into
a long muzzle, and the four toes on its front feet had disappeared.

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E.As grasslands expanded in the Miocene, horses changed abruptly in ways

that made their relationship to modern horses more apparent and developed
several lineages.
F.Several theories about the development of grasslands have answered most
questions about the evolution of Eohippus and its descendants.

答案：AACDB CBCC（BDE）

R2
The Commercialization of Pearl River Agriculture

The Pearl River Delta of southern China was an agriculturally rich region.

Formed of alluvial soils that had been captured from the silt flowing down

from the major rivers,these sand flats,as the Chinese called them,were

worked and reworked until they became very productive rice paddies that by

the sixteenth century annually produced two crops of rice and one of

vegetables and wheat. Peasant farmers produced on their own plots much of

the food the family consumed. However,agriculture in the region could not be

called subsistence agriculture, for many nonfood commercial crops were

grown and exchanged in markets that dotted the countryside.Besides rice,

peasant farmers in the Pearl River Delta grew sugarcane,hemp,cotton, and

mulberries to feed silkworms, among other crops.

But while commerce and market exchanges were an important part of the

rural economy until about 1550, the rural economy was not commercialized.

As the population grew from 1400 to 1550, the gross volume of crops

marketed and the number of rural markets both increased, but they did

so at the rate of population growth. The proportion of agricultural land

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devoted to commercial crops in 1550 was about what it had been in 1400. But

after 1550 the agricultural economy of the region became highly

commercialized. Markets and marketing activity expanded at a rate faster

than that of the population.

The most immediate stimulus for the commercialization of the economy was
the new demand for Chinese goods—in particular silk and porcelains—from

European traders who arrived in the South China Sea in the sixteenth

century.For the Pearl River region,the critical trade flow was triangular,linked

by the Portuguese.Either with their own funds or with silver that Japanese

merchants supplied,Portuguese traders headed up the Pearl River to biannual

fairs in the city of Guangzhou where they exchanged silver for export

goods.These goods were loaded onto ships bound for the Japanese city of

Nagasaki.Japanese merchants in Nagasaki paid in silver for the Chinese

goods,launching another round of trade.Trade through Manila,in the

Philippines,also brought silver into the South China economy. Chinese

merchants from Guangdong and Fujian provinces sailed to Manila with their

goods,which the Spanish bought with silver.From there the silver flowed back

to China as the Chinese commodities found their way to Europe.By 1600 this

trade resulted in an annual inflow of perhaps 200,000 kilograms of silver into

the coastal economies of south and southeast China.

In the Pearl River Delta,the silk industry developed on a base that was first

created by the sand-flat fields and then a particular combination of fish ponds

with fruit trees. In the fifteenth century peasant farmers in the Pearl River

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Delta began replacing some of their sand-flat rice fields with fishponds,

probably in response to increased demand from Guangzhou. On the

embankments, peasant farmers in the early Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)mostly

planted fruit trees,giving rise to the fruit tree and fishpond combination.

The carp fed on organic matter that either dropped or was thrown into the

pond,while the mud scooped up from the pond fertilized the fruit trees and the

rice fields and added height to the embankments and more protection for the

fishponds.

The fruit tree and fishpond culture provided a ready-made base for expansion

of the silk industry.As the demand for silk increased,peasant farmers replaced

the fruit trees with mulberry trees (silkworms feed on mulberry leaves)and then

began digging up even more rice paddies to expand this system.By 1581 in

the Longshan area of Shunde county,for example,eighteen percent of the

productive land was fishponds and,combined with the mulberry trees on the

embankments, accounted for about thirty percent of the cultivated land area.

1. The passage states that agriculture in the Pearl River Delta "could not
be called subsistence agriculture" because peasant farmers

A. fell short of producing all of the food their families needed

B. produced sizable crops for trading at nearby markets
C. worked some land that was outside of their own plots
D. kept working the same land but achieved bigger and bigger crops

2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential

information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices
change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential
information.

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A. Between 1400 and 1550,the number of rural markets and the volume of
crops traded in them grew only as fast as the population did.
B. Between 1400 and 1550the population grew rapidly, as did the number of
rural markets and the volume of crops traded.
C. The growth in gross volume of crops marketed and in the number of rural
markets promoted population growth between 1400 and 1550.
D. Population growth between 1400 and 1550 stimulated an increase in the
volume of crops traded in rural markets.

3. According to paragraph 3 what role did Portuguese traders play in the

commercialization of the Pearl River economy?

A. They created a market for Chinese silk and porcelains in the Philippines.
B. They allowed Japanese merchants to buy goods from them on credit.
C. They established the first biannual fairs in the city of Guangzhou.
D. They bought goods in Guangzhou and later sold them in Nagasaki.

4. The word "commodities" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. funds
B. goods
C. services
D. ships

5. Which of the following is true about the "fruit tree and fishpond"
combination?

A. The combination was created to meet the increased demand for silk.
B. The combination was introduced in fields where rice crops were poor.
C. The trees were fertilized by mud from the fishponds
D. The fruit trees replaced the sand-flat rice fields.

6. In paragraph 4 it can be inferred that fifteenth-century Guangzhou

most likely saw an increased demand for

A. rice
B. silk
C. fruit
D. fish

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7. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 4

A. Its opening sentence summarizes the previous paragraph, and the rest of
the paragraph describes new developments.
B. Its opening sentence describes how a problem was solved, and the rest of
the paragraph examines how the problem arose.
C. Its opening sentence claims there was a significant development, and the
rest of the paragraph provides reasons for why the development failed to last.
D. Its opening sentence refers to a significant development, and the rest of
the paragraph describes the system that formed its base.

8. According to paragraph 5 how did peasant farmers respond to the

growing demand for silk?

A. They cut down their fruit trees to make more room for fishponds.
B. They transformed more rice paddies into fishponds surrounded by
mulberry trees.
C. They planted land that had no previous agricultural use with mulberry
trees.
D. They gave up fish farming for the more profitable activity of raising
silkworms.

9. Look at the four squares[ ]that indicate where the following sentence
could be added to the passage

Where would the sentence best fit?

Thus,what they had managed to create was a largely closed, sustainable

system that produced two products: fruit and fish.

Click on a square [ ] to add the sentence to the passage. To select a different

location, click on a different square

In the Pearl River Delta,the silk industry developed on a base that was first

created by the sand-flat fields and then a particular combination of fish ponds

with fruit trees. In the fifteenth century peasant farmers in the Pearl River

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Delta began replacing some of their sand-flat rice fields with fishponds,

probably in response to increased demand from Guangzhou. On the

embankments, peasant farmers in the early Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)mostly

planted fruit trees,giving rise to the fruit tree and fishpond combination. The

carp fed on organic matter that either dropped or was thrown into the

pond,while the mud scooped up from the pond fertilized the fruit trees and the

rice fields and added height to the embankments and more protection for the

fishponds.

10. Directions: An introductory sentence tor a brief summary of the passage is

provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the 3 answer choices
that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do
not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented
in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2
points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an
answer choice, click on it.To review the passage VIEW TEXT

Until about 1550 in the Pearl River Delta crops were not proo luced for
markets outside the area's rural economy.

A. After 1550,commercialized agriculture took hold, driven by growing

markets in Japan and Europe for Chinese goods such as silk and porcelains.
B. By 1600,trade in the Philippines through Spanish merchants increased but
annual inflows of silver generated as a result of this trade were no greater than
those from other markets.
C. In the Pearl River region, the soil was piled up in embankments between
the fishponds in order to meet the demand for fruit.
D. The traders who transported exports from the Pearl River region to Japan
were Portuguese, whereas the merchants taking exports to Manila were
Chinese.
E. Starting in the fifteenth century, the fruit tree and fishpond system of
agriculture steadily gained ground, most likely to meet an increased demand
for fish.
F. The fruit tree and fishpond system provided the base for the expansion of
the silk industry

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答案：BADBC DDBD（AEF）

R3

Lunar History

Much is still unknown about the Moon's origin.Until recently,the most widely

held hypothesis argued that the formation of the Moon paralleled that of Earth

and the other planets.That is,the Moon formed from minute rock fragments

and gases that composed a disk-shaped structure (the solar nebula)that

orbited the early Sun. Debris from this disk collided and accumulated into

larger masses that,in turn, accreted into planetary-sized bodies.

A new hypothesis,which has recently gained support from many scientists,

suggests that a giant body collided with Earth to produce the Moon.The

explosion caused by the impact of a Mars-sized body with a semi-molten

Earth is thought to have ejected huge quantities of mantle rock from the

primordial Earth.A portion of this ejected material remained in orbit around

Earth,while the remainder either escaped or impacted upon Earth's surface.In

a manner similar to that proposed in the earlier hypothesis,the material

orbiting Earth then began to accumulate, eventually producing the

Moon.Though the giant impact hypothesis provides a plausible mechanism

for the Moon's formation,many questions must be answered before this

proposal can be considered viable.

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Despite the fact that the origin of the Moon is still debated,planetary

geologists have been able to work out some of the basic details of the Moon's

history,using among other things variations in crater density (quantity per

unit area).Simply stated,the higher the crater density,the longer the

topographic feature has existed. During its early history,the Moon was

continually impacted as it swept up debris from the solar nebula.This

continuous bombardment and perhaps radioactive decay generated enough

heat to melt the Moon's outer shell and quite possibly the rest of the Moon as

well.

When a large percentage of the debris had been gathered,the outer layer of

the Moon began to cool and form a crystalline crust.From samples obtained

by Apollo astronauts,the rocks of the primitive lunar crust are thought to be

composed of a high percentage of a calcium-rich feldspar (anorthosite).This

feldspar mineral crystallized early and,because it was less dense than the

remaining melt,floated to the top and formed a surface scum.While this

process was taking place,iron and other heavy metals probably sank to form

a small central core.Even after the crust had solidified,its surface was

continually bombarded.Remnants of the original crust occupy the densely

cratered highlands,which have been estimated to be as much as 4.5 billion

years old.

The last period of heavy bombardment recorded in the lunar highlands

occurred almost 500 million years after the crust had formed. It is not known

with certainty whether this final episode of bombardment was simply a

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clean-up phase where the remaining large particles in the Earth-Moon

orbit were swept up or whether it was an influx of bodies from farther out

in the solar system.

The next major event in the Moon's evolution was the formation of maria

basins, which are large craters that filled with lava flowing up through cracks

in the Moon's surface. The meteoroids that produced these huge pits

ejected mountainous quantities of lunar rock into piles rising 5 kilometers or

more. The Apennine mountain range, which typifies such an

accumulation,was produced in conjunction with the formation of the Imbrium

Basin,the site explored by the Apollo 15 astronauts. The crater density of

the ejected material is greater than that of the surface of the associated

basin,confirming that an appreciable time elapsed between the formation and

filling of these basins. Radiometric dating of the maria basalts (a type of

rock)puts their age between 3.2 and 3.8 billion years,somewhat younger than

the initial crust. In places,the lava flows overlap the highlands,another

testimonial to the lesser age of the maria deposits.

The last prominent features to form on the lunar surface were the rayed

craters as exemplified by the crater Copernicus.Rays of material ejected from

these young"depressions are clearly seen blanketing the surface of the maria

and many older rayless craters.By contrast,the older craters have rounded

rims,and their rays have been erased by the impact of small

debris.However,even a relatively young crater like Copernicus must be

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millions of years old.Had it formed on Earth, erosional forces would have long

since obliterated it.

1. The word "minute" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. tiny
B. numerous
C. Heavy
D. precious

2. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about the

origins of Earth?

A. Earth formed from debris surrounding the Sun

B. Earth was disk-shaped in the earliest stage of its formation.
C. Earth formed from a large mass that did not collide with debris.
D. Earth formed after the Moon had already been formed

3. According to the new hypothesis described in paragraph 2 what

started the process of the Moon's formation?

A. The collision of a large body with Earth

B. The melting of Earth's surface by the Sun
C. The collision of Mars with Earth
D. The explosion of a large body near Earth

4. Why does the author mention "variations in crater density"?

A. To emphasize that there is no agreement among geologists about the

origins of the Moon
B. To explain the presence of radioactive material on the Moon
C. To argue that the Moon's origins are actually simpler than most geologists
once thought
D. To explain how geologists can distinguish the different stages in the
Moon's history

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5. According to paragraph 4 why is anorthosite believed to make up a

high percentage of the primitive Moon's crust?

A. It cooled more slowly than other materials on the Moon.

B. It melted more easily than other materials on the Moon.
C. It is the most commonly found material on the Moon.
D. Its low density allowed it to rise to the surface faster.
6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential
information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect
choices change the meaning in Important ways or leave out essential
information.

A. It is not known whether the last period of bombardment involved the

remaining particles orbiting Earth and the Moon or bodies from elsewhere in
the solar system.
B. It is not certain whether large particles continued to orbit Earth and the
Moon during the last period of bombardment or whether they were cleaned
up
C. During the last period of bombardment, the large particles remaining in
orbit around Earth and the Moon may have simply been swept farther out in
the solar system.
D. It is not certain whether the bombardment continued after the sweeping up
of arge particles from the Earth-Moon orbit and from farther out in the solar
system.

7. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 6 as providing

evidence that the crust in the highlands is older than the maria basins?

A. The presence of lava covering some of the highlands

B. The age of the basalt deposits in the maria basins
C. The crater density of material in the highlands
D. The length and width of the surface area of the maria basins

8. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 7 about

erosional forces on the Moon?

A. They were much weaker in the early stages of the Moon's development.
B. They do not affect older craters.
C. They are much slower on the Moon than on Earth.
D. They are responsible for creating rays around younger craters.

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9. Look at the four squares[ ]that indicate where the following sentence
could be added to the passage

Where would the sentence best fit?

With a diameter of 1123 kilometersit is the largest mare associated with

an impact basin.

Click on a square [ ] to add the sentence to the passage. To select a different

location, click on a different square

The next major event in the Moon's evolution was the formation of maria

basins, which are large craters that filled with lava flowing up through cracks

in the Moon's surface. The meteoroids that produced these huge pits

ejected mountainous quantities of lunar rock into piles rising 5 kilometers or

more. The Apennine mountain range, which typifies such an

accumulation,was produced in conjunction with the formation of the Imbrium

Basin,the site explored by the Apollo 15 astronauts. The crater density of

the ejected material is greater than that of the surface of the associated

basin,confirming that an appreciable time elapsed between the formation and

filling of these basins. Radiometric dating of the maria basalts (a type of

rock)puts their age between 3.2 and 3.8 billion years,somewhat younger than

the initial crust. In places,the lava flows overlap the highlands,another

testimonial to the lesser age of the maria deposits.

10. Directions: An introductory sentence tor a brief summary of the passage is

provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the 3 answer choices
that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do
not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented
in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2
points.

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Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an
answer choice, click on it.To review the passage VIEW TEXT

The two main hypotheses about the formation of the Moon contend that
it was formed either from debris and gases around the from debris
thrown from Earth.

A.The discovery of ejected materials still orbiting around Earth caused

scientists to form a new hypothesis about the formation of the Moon from
materials on Earth.
B. Measurements of crater density have allowed scientists to determine that
early in its formation, the Moon was subjected to such high temperatures that
its outer shell melted.
C.Meteoroids striking the surface of the Moon created huge pits called maria
basins, at the same time ejecting huge amounts of material that piled up into
mountains.
D.The early Moon was a hot accumulation of orbiting material some of which
eventually cooled and crystallized to form the Moon's outer crust.
E.Because the bombardment of debris from around the Sun ended earlier in
the Moon's highlands than in lower regions, the oldest portions of the Moon's
crust are found in the mountains.
F.Rayed craters,named for the lines left in the Moon's surface by the material
ejected from the craters, are the most recent of the Moon's major features to
form.

答案：AAADD ADCC（CDF）

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