JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (2001) 16 (4) 375–389

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

DOI: 10.1002/jqs.615

Buried palaeosols of the Nevado de Toluca:

an alternative record of Late Quaternary
environmental change in central Mexico
SERGEY SEDOV*, ELIZABETH SOLLEIRO-REBOLLEDO, JORGE E. GAMA-CASTRO, ERNESTINA VALLEJO-GÓMEZ and
ARELIA GONZÁLEZ-VELÁZQUEZ
Departamento de Edafologı́a, Instituto de Geologı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacán 04510
D.F., Mexico

Sedov, S., Solleiro-Rebolledo, E. Gama-Castro, J. E., Vallejo-Gómez E. and González-Velázquez A. 2001. Buried palaeosols of the Nevado de Toluca: an
alternative record of Late Quaternary environmental change in central Mexico. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 16, pp. 375–389. ISSN 0267-8179.
Received 13 June 2000; Revised 5 January 2001; Accepted 11 January 2001

ABSTRACT: Buried palaeosols of central Mexico, not previously analysed from a palaeopedolog-
ical standpoint, have helped to develop a reliable regional model of Late Quaternary climatic
change. This paper focuses upon morphological and micromorphological properties, particle-
size distribution, and extractable Fe, Al and Si of seven palaeosols (named PT1–PT7) in the
vicinity of the Nevado de Toluca volcano. The characteristics of Andic Cambisol PT1, similar
to those of modern soils in semi-arid environments, indicate a drier climate in the first half of
the Holocene. Humic Andosols PT2–PT4 are analogous to modern volcanic soils of humid
forest environments. They show evidence that a moist palaeoclimate prevailed during marine
oxygen isotope stages (OIS) 2 and 3. Luvisols PT5 and PT6, which are assumed to have formed
at the end of marine OIS 5 to marine OIS 4, also indicate humid conditions. We attribute the
differences between Andosols PT2–PT4 and Luvisols PT5–PT7 to variations in the duration in
the pedogenesis rather than to changes in palaeoclimate. Micromorphological features of Andosol
to Luvisol transition confirm that these soils form an evolutionary sequence. Being for the most
part consistent with lacustrine records, the palaeosol properties do not reflect the episodes of
‘drier climate’ during the Last Glacial Maximum, however, as shown by diatom and palynological
data from lake sediments. Mesoclimate variations and/or incompleteness of ‘soil memory’,
reflecting mostly periods of humid pedogenesis, probably provide the reason for this disagree-
ment. Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEYWORDS: buried palaeosols; soil forming processes; palaeoenvironments.

Introduction
Well-preserved buried Quaternary palaeosols are rare in trop-
ical regions (Stoops, 1989). Palaeosol–sedimentary sequences
of Central Mexico, which provide a unique palaeopedological
record of Late Pleistocene to Holocene climates of tropical
Mesoamerica, however, have received surprisingly little atten-
tion after the pioneer research of Bryan (1948). In a few studies
they have been utilised as stratigraphical markers or studied
from a sedimentological perspective (Arellano, 1953; Heine
and Shönhals, 1973; Cervantes-Borja et al., 1997) with little
emphasis given to the identification of soil forming processes,
* Correspondence to: S. Sedov, Departamento de Edafologı́a, Instituto de
Geologı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacán 04510
D.F., Mexico.
Contract grant sponsor: National Council of Science and Technology of
Mexico (CONACYT)
Contract grant number: 32337-T
which are among the most useful tools for palaeoenvironmen-
tal reconstructions.
The climatic system of tropical Mexico is considered to
be rather susceptible: recent short-term changes, coinciding
with climatic fluctuations in temperate regions (e.g. with the
Little Ice Age), were registered in historical and instrumental
records (Jauregui, 1997; O’Hara and Metcalfe, 1997). An
understanding of Late Pleistocene to Holocene climatic
change in this region can provide a better insight into
the climatic oscillations in tropical areas linked to glacial–
interglacial cycles.
Current reconstruction of Late Quaternary environmental
change in central Mexico is based largely upon results of
multidisciplinary research (palynological, rock magnetic and
sedimentological) on the closed-basin lake sediments from
the Transmexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) (Watts and Brad-
bury, 1982; Straka and Ohngemach, 1989; Lozano-Garcı́a
et al., 1993; Lozano-Garcı́a and Ortega-Guerrero, 1994;
Caballero et al., 1999, in press; Ortega-Guerrero et al.,
2000). These lacustrine records are known to be partly
376 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
incomplete and their interpretation is controversial. The
interpretation problems (discussed by Metcalfe (1997) and
Lozano-Garcı́a and Xelhuantzi-López (1997)) are related to
variations of sedimentation rates and existence of hiatuses,
the influence of local tectonic and volcanic processes over-
printing climatic signals, anthropogenic disturbances and
(often) loss of the upper part of the sedimentary sequence
as a result of deflation and mineralisation after drying.
The study of the dynamics of Quaternary glaciations of
the highest volcanoes of the TMVB provides another source
of palaeoclimate information for central Mexico (Heine,
1984; White and Valastro, 1984; Vázquez-Selem, 1997).
However, the glacial sequences proposed by these authors
differ considerably; the chronology of major glacial advances
is still under discussion, which hampers further palaeocli-
matic deductions.
With these problems still unsolved, alternative inde-
pendent terrestrial records of Quaternary climatic change are
of major value for reliable palaeoenvironment reconstruction.
Palaeosols buried in Quaternary volcanic sediments, which
occur frequently throughout the TMVB, can provide such
records. Most of these palaeosols belong to the Andosol
group (FAO, 1998), which causes some difficulties for their
palaeoclimatic interpretation. The methodological approach
for palaeoenvironmental interpretation of Andosols is less
developed than that of other soil groups, e.g. those present
in loess–palaeosol sequences. However, soils derived from
volcanic materials are known to differ considerably when
formed under different environmental conditions (Mizota and
van Reeuwijk, 1989). The correlation between Andosol
properties and soil forming factors, especially climate and
time (which is necessary for palaeoclimatic deductions), is
available from a number of Andosol climo- and chronosequ-
ences in the tropics (Martini, 1976; Quantin, 1985; Nizeyim-
ana, 1997). Detailed research on Andosols of the Sierra
Nevada (central Mexico) also has been carried out by Miel-
ich (1992).
Tephra–palaeosol sequences have been used for the recon-
struction of Late Pleistocene to Holocene palaeoclimates in
Japan (Inoue and Sase, 1996), New Zealand (Campbell,
1986) and central Italy (Frezzotti and Narcisi, 1996). Data
from buried volcanic soils in Colombia (Fölster et al., 1977)
have been interpreted for the purpose of making a palaeoen-
vironment reconstruction.
In this paper we present the results of a pedogenetic
study of a Late Pleistocene to Holocene sequence of buried
palaeosols in the vicinity of the Nevado de Toluca volcano.
The main objective is to assess the palaeosol properties
as evidence of soil forming processes and furthermore as
palaeoenvironment indicators. The climatic interpretation is
then correlated with other terrestrial palaeoclimatic records.
Materials and methods
The Nevado de Toluca (4680 m) is a Pleistocene andesitic–
dacitic stratovolcano (Bloomfield and Valastro, 1974) located
in the central part of the TMVB (Fig. 1). The contemporary
climate (station Toluca, 2675 m) is characterised by a mean
annual temperature of +12.7°C, with very small seasonal
variations. Annual precipitation is 791.6 mm, with uneven
distribution: the most humid period is June–August, the most
dry is December–February. Natural vegetation is pine forest,
with Pinus pseudostrobus as the dominant species (Sandoval,
1987). Below 3000 m agricultural plants, mostly maize,
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
extensively replace natural vegetation. Modern surface soils
are Andosols.
Sequences of palaeosols interbedded with pumice and ash
flows are exposed in two quarries: Arroyo la Ciervita
(3100 m, N19°13′26″ and W99°47′22″) and Zacango
(2800 m, N19°33′40″ and W99°38′45″), located on the
northern flank of Nevado de Toluca. Pedostratigraphical
correlation of these two sites was based on localisation of
palaeosols and pumice layers with distinctive properties. The
stratigraphy and chronology of the volcanic sediments were
studied earlier in these exposures by Bloomfield and Valastro
(1974) and Macı́as et al. (1997); the radiocarbon dates
obtained by these authors have been used to develop the
time frame for the present research. Five new conventional
radiocarbon dates from humus of bulk samples of palaeosol
Ah horizons were obtained by the radiocarbon laboratory
of the Geological Institute RAS (Moscow).
The palaeosols and their genetic horizons were first
defined according to their morphology, following the inter-
national soil classification World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (FAO, 1998).
Comparison of palaeosols with the Holocene surface soils
of the same area facilitates the palaeoenvironmental inter—
pretation of Quaternary palaeosol–sedimentary sequences (see
e.g. Bronger et al., 1998). We studied two modern soil
profiles: one, exposed in the Arroyo la Ciervita quarry, is
affected by recent cultivation and the other, about 300 m
higher on the northwest slope of Nevado de Toluca, is an
undisturbed soil formed under pine forest.
Bulk samples for physical and chemical analyses as well
as undisturbed samples for preparation of thin-sections were
collected from genetic horizons of palaeosols and modern
soils. Soil colours were determined according to the Munsell
Soil Color Charts (1975). Organic carbon and Fe, Al and Si
contents, extracted with dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate and
oxalate solutions, were evaluated according to the USDA
(1996). To establish particle-size distribution we separated
quantitatively the sand fractions (2–0.02 mm) by sieving and
silt (0.02–0.002) and clay (⬍ 0.002 mm) fractions by gravity
sedimentation with preliminary destruction of aggregating
agents: 10% H2O2 was used for organic matter and dithion-
ite-citrate-bicarbonate extraction for iron oxides. Thin-sec-
tions were prepared from undisturbed soil samples impreg-
nated at room temperature with the resin Cristal MC-40,
studied under a petrographic microscope and described,
following the terminology of Bullock et al. (1985).
Results
Local stratigraphy and morphology of palaeosols
and modern soils
Modern soils have a well-developed horizon of humus
accumulation (Ah): 30–40 cm thick, brown (10YR 5/3) dry,
dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) moist in cultivated Haplic
Andosol, darker in forest Melanic Andosol (dark greyish
brown 10YR 4/2 dry; black 10YR 2/1 moist). Ah horizons
gradually merge into parent material; numerous krotovinas
with dark fillings are located just below the Ah horizon. No
illuvial or intensively weathered B-horizons (Bt or Bw) were
observed in these soils.
Seven pedostratigraphical units were recognised and lab-
elled PT1–PT7 (PT represents Palaeosol Toluca) in the two
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Figure 1 Location of the Nevado de Toluca Volcano and study areas: Arroyo La Ciervita and Zacango.
quarries studied. Only palaeosol PT5 is severely truncated
by erosion. Other palaeosols are well preserved: they exhibit
more or less complete profiles, including upper Ah (in PT2–
PT4) or EB (PT6 and PT7) horizons. The uppermost parts
(5–7 cm) of the Ah horizons appear to have been transformed
during burial: the dark colours are partly lost and pumice
fragments from above are incorporated.
In Arroyo la Ciervita, upper palaeosols PT1–PT3 are
located in three exposures: A.C.1, A.C.2 and A.C.3 (Fig. 2).
Palaeosol PT1 differs considerably both from modern soil
and the underlying palaeosol units. It consists of a yellowish
brown (light yellowish brown 10YR 6/4 dry; dark yellowish
brown 10YR 3/4 moist) weathered Bw horizon and an under-
lying transitional BC horizon; no Ah horizon is observed.
This palaeosol was defined as Andic Cambisol.
Palaeosols PT2 and PT3 are thicker than modern Andosols.
The presence of more than one Ah horizon indicates that
each unit consists of more than one palaeosol member,
so both PT2 and PT3 can be regarded as pedocomplexes
(Smolikova, 1967). In PT2, two well-developed Ah horizons
(present in both exposures—A.C.1 and A.C.2) indicate two
palaeosol profiles of similar thickness; an additional thin
discontinuous humus zone in exposure A.C.2 suggests the
possibility of one more soil-forming event. Palaeosol PT3 in
exposure A.C.3 consists of two different palaeosol profiles:
the lower one is thick and well developed and the upper
is thinner with a less developed A–AC profile.
In both the PT2 palaeosols and the lower palaeosol of
PT3, dark Ah horizons (dark greyish brown to dark brown
10YR 4/2, 3/3 dry; black 10YR 2/1 moist) are underlain by
loamy brown intensely weathered ABw or Bw horizons,
which merge via transitional BC horizons into unweathered
pumiceous parent material. The upper Ah horizon of PT2
and the lower Ah horizon of PT3 have numerous cracks
that produce a coarse angular blocky structure. In the Bw
and BC horizons in the lower palaeosol of PT3 there are
rusty Fe–Mn mottles—evidence of the redoximorphic pro-
cesses.
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
377
In the Zacango quarry (exposures Z.1, Z.2 and Z.3) units
PT2 – PT7 are exposed. Thick profiles of PT2 and PT3
palaeosols have similar well-developed Ah horizons with
cracks underlain by brown weathered ABw and Bw horizons.
However, in contrast to Arroyo la Ciervita, both PT2 and
PT3 display a single palaeosol profile. Only in the southern
part of exposure Z.1 does a second (lower) humus horizon
appear in PT2, so that the morphology of this pedocomplex
becomes similar to that in Arroyo la Ciervita. Palaeosol PT4
is located below PT3. It also has a profile Ah–Bw–BC, with
a dark humus horizon and brown Bw horizon, similar to
PT2 and PT3. Palaeosols PT2–PT4 were defined as Mollic
Andosols.
The morphology of palaeosols PT5–PT7 differs completely
from that of younger units and modern soils. Well-developed
clay-illuvial (argic) Bt horizons are the most pronounced
feature of these palaeosols. Their colour ranges from yellow-
ish brown PT7 (10YR 5/4 dry; 10YR 4/4 moist) to strong
brown in PT6 (10YR 5/4 dry, 7.5YR 4/6 moist). Angular
blocky–prismatic structure with thick continuous illuvial clay
coatings on ped surfaces as well as some Fe–Mn mottles
and concretions are observed. Palaeosol PT5 is truncated by
erosion so that only the lower part of Bt is preserved,
whereas PT6 and PT7 have more complete profiles with
pale eluvial EB horizons (very pale brown 10YR 7/4 dry;
dark yellowish brown 10YR 4/6 moist) above the set of Bt
horizons. No dark humus horizons are present in PT5–PT7.
These palaeosols were defined as Andic Luvisols.
Micromorphology of palaeosols and modern
soils
The petrographic and mineralogical composition of parent
material, as observed in thin-sections of BC and C horizons,
is rather uniform in all profiles. Numerous fragments of
volcanic rocks, mostly andesite with porphyric texture, are
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Figure 2 Stratigraphical relationship of palaeosols (dotted lines indicate there is no observed correlation). Asterisks denote those from
Macı́as et al. (1997).

composed mainly of plagioclase, brown hornblende, pyr-
oxene and volcanic glass. The same minerals comprise sand
and silt fractions. Clear weathering features—cracks in rock
fragments filled with clay and iron oxides, etching of plagio-
clase, pyroxene and hornblende grains—are most pro-
nounced in Bt horizons of palaeosols PT6 and PT7 and
humus horizons of PT2–PT4. In all palaeosols (including
most weathered and clay-rich Luvisols of PT6-PT7) as well
as in modern soils, however, coarse material consists mostly
of unstable minerals, i.e. plagioclase, pyroxene, etc. which
indicates a rather early stage of weathering in these profiles.
The characteristic micromorphological feature of humus
horizons in modern soils is a strongly developed ultrafine
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
granular or crumb structure: round 0.2–0.5 mm microaggre-
gates are separated by packing voids, providing very high
porosity (Fig. 3a). Such structure is typical for upper horizons
of Andosols. The fine material is dark coloured, isotropic
and rich in humus. No features related to clay illuviation or
redoximorphic processes are observed.
In the Bw horizon of palaeosol PT1, the structure is
more complex: granules of different size are associated with
subangular blocks (Fig. 3b). Fine material is isotropic, light-
brown and consists of clay associated with iron oxides.
The micromorphology of the humus horizons of pedocom-
plexes PT2 and PT3 is variable. In the lower Ah of PT2 and
upper (thinner) Ah of PT3 in Arroyo la Ciervita we observed
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 LATE QUATERNARY PALAEOSOLS OF CENTRAL MEXICO 379

Figure 3 Micromorphology of palaeosols and modern soils. Plain polarized light. (a) Ultrafine granular structure in Ah horizon of modern
soil; exposure A.C.1. (b) Complex structure of Bw horizon of palaeosol PT1, exposure A.C.1.

the same characteristic strong ultrafine granular structure and
high porosity as in modern soils. In the Zacango exposure
these properties were observed only in the upper part of the
Ah horizon of PT3. In contrast, in the upper Ah of PT2 and
lower (thicker) Ah of PT3 the groundmass is more compact,
pores are mostly channels and planes, and aggregates are
subangular blocks (Fig. 3c). The same types of structure and
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
porosity were found in the Ah horizons of PT2 and PT3
(except the upper part) in Zacango. In these horizons we
observed thin yellow-brown isotropic depositional coatings
in some channels (Fig. 3e).
Underlying horizons also are different: in the upper
palaeosols of PT2 and lower palaeosol of PT3 they are more
compact, have subangular blocky structure and incomplete
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Figure 3 Continued. (c) Subangular blocky structure and planar voids in the lower Ah horizon of pedocomplex PT3; exposure A.C.3 (d)
Ferruginous hypocoating (marked with arrow). Pedocomplex PT2, BCg horizon, exposure A.C.2.

pedality. Features related to redoximorphic processes are
ferruginous nodules, mottles and occasional hypocoatings in
the voids (Fig. 3d). Only a few very thin clay coatings were
found below Ah horizons in these palaeosols.
Although the profile morphology of palaeosol PT4 is simi-
lar to that of PT2 and PT3, it has some specific micromor-
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
phological features: clay coatings are observed not only in
Ah, but also in the underlying B horizon. However, the
total amount of these coatings is not sufficient to meet the
requirements for an argic Bt horizon.
In palaeosols PT5–PT7 the most spectacular micromorpho-
logical features are the numerous thick clay coatings and
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 LATE QUATERNARY PALAEOSOLS OF CENTRAL MEXICO 381

Figure 3 Continued. (e) Thin clay–humus coating (marked with arrows) in the channel in the lower part of Ah horizon of palaeosol PT3;
exposure Z.1. (f) Clay coatings and infillings in the upper Bt horizon of the palaeosol PT6, exposure Z.3.

infillings. In Bt horizons they occupy more than 10% of total
area in thin-sections (Fig. 3f). Many of these pedofeatures are
microlaminated, indicating multiple clay illuviation events
(Fig. 3g). Although there are some microlayers containing
fine silt particles, the larger part of the coatings and infillings
is made up of pure limpid clay. In contrast to the coating
material in PT2–PT4, clay in palaeosols PT5–PT7 consists
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
mostly of crystalline minerals, as evidenced by its anisotrop-
ism between crossed polarisers. Low interference colours
(not higher than white of the first order) indicate that 1:1
clay minerals are dominant; preliminary results of X-ray
diffraction confirmed the abundance of halloysite in these
horizons.
Pedofeatures related to redoximorphic processes also are
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Figure 3 Continued. (g) Microlaminated clay infilling in the lower Bt horizon of palaeosol PT6, exposure Z.3. (h) Ferruginous coatings
superimposed (s) and juxtaposed (j) on the clay coating in the lower Bt horizon of palaeosol PT6, exposure Z.3.

abundant in these profiles. In the EB and upper Bt horizons
they are mostly rounded, dark dense ferruginous nodules
with sharp boundaries. In the lower Bt there are many
ferruginous mottles and coatings, superimposed or juxta-
posed on clay coatings (Fig. 3h), thus indicating that
migration of iron owing to redoximorphic processes occurred
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
simultaneously with or after clay illuviation. In the Bt1 thin-
section of PT7 we observed areas with a specific fabric: the
groundmass forms granular aggregates, whereas clay coatings
and infillings occupy the major part of pore space around
them (Fig. 3i). Numerous phytoliths are observed within the
aggregates at higher magnifications (Fig. 3j).
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Figure 3 Continued. (i) Granular aggregates surrounded by illuvial clay in the upper Bt horizon of palaeosol PT7, exposure Z.3. (j)
Phytoliths within granular aggregates in the upper Bt horizon of palaeosol PT7, exposure Z.3.

Analytical characteristics of palaeosols and
modern soils
The clay content in the soils studied is considerably higher
than in the underlying parent material, as shown by granulo-
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
metric analysis data (Fig. 4). Clay accumulation in palaeosols
is similar or higher than in modern soils. In palaeosols PT2–
PT4 (Andosols) the profile maxima of clay, observed in A,
AB or B horizons, is in the range 24–32%. In PT5–PT7
(Luvisols) the values are variable. In PT5 and PT7 it is 27–
32%, which is similar to PT2–PT4, whereas in the lower
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Figure 4 Analytical data of palaeosols studied and modern soils.
part of PT6 it reaches 48%—much higher than in all other
profiles.
In the comparatively weak palaeosol PT1 the clay content
is surprisingly high (ca. 38%), and in the BC horizon it is
as high as 24%. We conclude that this soil was formed in
a parent material originally rich in clay, which at least in
part accounts for the anomalous high clay content. The
underlying volcanic ash layer has a completely different
content of all size fractions, including sand and silt. This
means that it should be considered as an independent litho-
logical unit and not as the parent material of PT1.
The amount of organic carbon (Corg.) in the Ah horizons
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
of palaeosols PT2–PT4 is above 2%. This is high enough to
meet the requirements of a Mollic horizon, but it is lower
than in modern soils under forest. However, it should be
borne in mind that part of the organic material is lost owing
to decomposition after burial. Calculations by Mielich (1992)
showed that buried Holocene Andosols of the Sierra Nevada
contained 3% less Corg than they should according to chron-
ofunctions. We assume even higher losses in the palaeosols
studied because of longer burial duration. The youngest
palaeosol (PT1) and the oldest (PT5–PT7) contain much less
Corg (⬍ 0.5%).
The iron content, extracted by dithionite solution (Fed),
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 LATE QUATERNARY PALAEOSOLS OF CENTRAL MEXICO
Figure 4 Continued.
which includes fine iron oxides produced by weathering, is
quite similar to that of modern soils and for all palaeosols.
In contrast, the quantities of Fe, Al and Si extracted by
oxalate solution (Feo, Alo, Sio ), which detects amorphous
compounds or those with a poor crystalline structure,
differ greatly in the profiles studied. They are high (often
⬎ 1%) in modern soils and palaeosols PT2 and PT3. The
Feo and Fed values in these soils are very similar, indicat-
ing that a large part of the fine iron oxides is represented
by compounds with poor crystallinity. A high Alo content
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385
coincides with high Sio.values This confirms that
allophanes are the main contributors to Alo in these soils.
Palaeosols PT1 and PT4 have lower Feo and Alo values,
despite the morphological similarity of PT4 and PT2 and
PT3. The Luvisols of PT5–PT7 are characterised by the
lowest content of both Feo and Alo, so that Feo makes up
only one-third or less of Fed.
The radiocarbon ages obtained (see Fig. 2) correlate well
with the earlier dates of Bloomfield and Valastro (1974) and
Macı́as et al. (1997).
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Discussion
Dating of palaeosols and duration of
pedogenesis
The adopted time-scale for the palaeosol sequence studied
is based on radiocarbon dates of palaeosol Ah horizons
and charcoal included in volcanic sediments, obtained by
other workers for these and correlative sections of the
palaeosol–sedimentary sequences (Bloomfield and Valas-
tro, 1974; Macı́as et al., 1997) and on five new radiocar-
bon dates reported here from palaeosol humus. In the
Arroyo la Ciervita exposure the tephrous sediments, which
are the parent material for PT3, are correlative to the
layer dated 42 000 yr BP. The layer of ‘block-and-ash flow
deposit’ with numerous charcoal fragments, which is the
parent material for PT2 and overlies PT3, has an age of
28 140 yr BP. Pedocomplex PT2 is capped by the layer
correlative to the Upper Toluca Pumice, dated 11 600 yr.
BP. The radiocarbon dates of the Ah horizons in the upper
part of PT2 (27 900 ± 500 yr BP, GIN-10581), the lower
part of PT2 (29 000 ± 1200 yr BP, GIN-10582) and the
lower part of PT3 (35 650 ± 1200 yr BP, GIN-10586), agree
with the ages of parent and overlying materials. The char-
coal, found just below the modern soil, has an age of
3450 yr BP; the thin sediment that separates the modern
soil and PT1 is probably related to one more minor erup-
tion that occurred about 3200 yr BP (J. L. Macı́as, personal
communication, Instituto de Geofı́sica, UNAM, March
2000). According to these data the following intervals
of soil formation were estimated: for pedocomplex PT3,
ca. 42 000 to ca. 28 000 yr BP (late Pleistocene, marine
OIS 3 (Imbrie et al., 1984)); for PT2, 28 000 to
ca. 11 600 yr BP (late Pleistocene, end of marine OIS 3
to OIS 2); for PT1, ca. 11 600 to ca. 3500 yr BP (early to
middle Holocene); for modern soil, 3500 yr BP to present
(late Holocene).
In the Zacango exposure the morphological and micro-
morphological similarity of palaeosols PT2 and PT3 as
well as the radiocarbon age of PT3 (39 600 ± 1000 yr BP,
GIN-10588), which fits to the established interval, provide
good correlation with Arroyo la Ciervita. Timing of pedog-
enesis is still less certain for the lower part of the sequence
studied. The age of palaeosol PT4 (radiocarbon date
⬎ 35 500 yr BP, GIN-10589) seems to be beyond the
possibilities of dating by the radiocarbon method.
Palaeosols PT5–PT7, which do not have Ah horizons,
have not been dated by instrumental methods so far.
Preliminary conclusions about the age and duration of
pedogenesis can be drawn from the morphological and
analytical characteristics of the soil horizons. Palaeosol
PT4 is an Andosol with similar properties to those of
palaeosols of PT2 and PT3 formed over a period of
ⱕ 10 000 yr. It follows that palaeosol PT4 was most
probably formed during the lower part of marine OIS 3.
As for Luvisols PT5–PT7, their formation requires a longer
period. The results from a number of soil chronosequ-
ences in North America summarised by Birkeland (1984,
1992) shows that well-developed Bt horizons appear on
landsurfaces older than 10 000 yr. Only in the case of
an original high clay content in the parent material or
extensive aeolian clay input is this horizon formed faster
(n × 100 − n × 1000 yr); however, these preconditions
are not provided in our case. Therefore, the period of
formation of these palaeosols should cover in all prob-
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
ability at least marine OIS 4 and possibly the late sub-
stages of marine OIS 5.
Pedogenetic and palaeoenvironmental
interpretation of palaeosol properties
The palaeosols studied can be grouped in three units,
according to the similarity of their morphological and ana-
lytical characteristics.
1 The properties of palaeosol PT1 (yellow-brown colour,
low accumulation of humus, moderate clay and iron oxide
formation with a small proportion of amorphous com-
pounds, complex microstructure) are different from other
palaeosols as well as from local modern Andosols. These
properties are analogous to those described by Dubroeucq
et al. (1998) in volcanic soils formed in drier environments
(but still under pine forest) in the eastern part of the
TMVB. In this way PT1 gives evidence of a relatively dry
climatic phase in the first half of the Holocene. However,
no signs of precipitation of secondary calcite, which is
typical of volcanic soils in real arid climates (Jahn et al.,
1985), were observed.
2 Palaeosols PT2–PT4 are characterised by a set of proper-
ties that reveal high accumulation of humus and formation
of thick dark epipedon, accumulation of clay and iron
oxides as a result of weathering in situ and a high content
of allophanes (proved by high Alo and Sio). These pro-
cesses are typical for Andosols formed under forest veg-
etation in humid environments. The modern analogues in
the region are found in the pine forest ecosystems of
Nevado de Toluca and in the coniferous forests of the
Sierra Nevada (Mielich, 1992). Redoximorphic processes
(detected macro- and micromorphologically in some hor-
izons of these palaeosols) offer additional evidence of
humid climate, because they occur only in the case of at
least seasonal water oversaturation. According to the
adopted time frame, the period of formation of these
palaeosols (confirmed by radiocarbon dates) covers marine
OIS 2 and 3. We conclude that humid forest environments
persisted during a major part of this period.
Our interpretation of palaeosols PT2–PT4 contradicts
with the palaeoclimatic deductions of Fölster et al. (1977),
who studied somewhat similar buried soils derived from
volcanic ash in the Central Cordillera of Colombia. These
authors assume that formation of a dark A horizon with
higher humus content in the upper of two Late Pleistocene
palaeosols is evidence of an environmental change
towards grassland vegetation and drier climate. However,
the data from different climosequences confirm that in
Andosols the accumulation of humus intensifies as
humidity increases and reaches its maximum in forest
ecosystems with Udic soil moisture regimes (in contrast
to the classic Luvisol–Chernozem climosequence of tem-
perate regions where maximal humus accumulation takes
place in steppes under Ustic soil moisture regime)
(Quantin, 1985; Mielich, 1992; Nizeyimana, 1997). The
explanation of this phenomenon lies in specific organo-
mineral interactions of volcanic soils: the major part of
the humus is bound to amorphous Si–Al componds, which
are most abundant in humid Andosols. Thus, humus-rich
dark-coloured buried volcanic soils are evidence of a
humid palaeoclimate and forest palaeovegetation. This
example shows that the interpretation of volcanic palaeo-
sol properties should not follow the same patterns as used
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 16(4) 375–389 (2001)
 LATE QUATERNARY PALAEOSOLS OF CENTRAL MEXICO
for palaeosols of other genetic types, e.g. those of loess–
palaeosol sequences.
3 Palaeosols PT5–PT7 belong to the Luvisol group. The
combination of the main soil forming processes—extensive
clay accumulation in Bt horizons as a result of illuviation
(indicated by abundant clay coatings) and weathering in
situ, simultaneous migration of iron owing to redoxi-
morphic processes (which caused numerous ferruginous
mottles and coatings)—are typical of pedogenesis in humid
forest ecosystems. This allows us to assume that humid
palaeoclimates also persisted over a rather long period
prior to marine OIS 3, probably marine OIS 4 and late
substages of marine OIS 5 (see ‘Dating of palaeosols and
duration of pedogenesis’).
The assertion that such different palaeosols as Andosols
PT2–PT4 and Luvisols PT5–PT7 indicate fairly similar
palaeoenvironments seems contradictory at first. However,
it makes sense if different durations of pedogenesis are
assumed. It has been shown in a number of studies that
Andosols are formed on recent volcanic sediments
whereas evolution towards soils with clay illuviation takes
place on older landsurfaces (Martini, 1976; Delvaux et al.,
1989). The fact that Luvisols of PT5–PT7 have more crys-
talline clay and less amorphous compounds (which is
proved by anisotropism of clay in thin-sections and low
quantities of Feo, Alo and Sio) fits well with our interpret-
ation. The general tendency in the evolution of neoformed
minerals in volcanic soils involves the transformation of
amorphous compounds (formed during the early stages of
pedogenesis) into crystalline minerals as weathering and
soil formation advance; this evolution is associated with
the transformation of Andosols into other soil units
(summarised by Shoji et al., 1993).
Within our hypothesis, the palaeosols upper PT2, lower
PT3 and PT4 are interpreted as being in the initial stage of
evolution of Andosols towards Luvisols. These soils have
thick dark humus horizons, and extensive accumulation of
humus and amorphous compounds that are typical of humid
Andosols. However, they already are compact and have
blocky structure (instead of granular, typical for Andosols),
which indicate structural reorganisation. Thin but distinct
clay coatings in the A horizon indicate that clay illuviation
has already started, although this process is restricted to
local intrahorizontal clay transport and does not cause profile
differentiation. These palaeosols (especially PT4 with lower
Alo and Sio content) fit the concept of ‘Intergraded Andisols’,
which are defined as presenting ‘an advanced degree of
evolution and weathering towards soils with a much lesser
content of amorphous materials’ (Fernández-Caldas et al.,
1985).
On the other hand the granular microstructure and numer-
ous phytoliths in the groundmass of Bt1 horizon in the
Luvisol PT7 are likely to be a relict feature of a previous
Andosol phase, during which this material was part of the
Andosol lower A or AB horizon. Signs of transformation of
Andosols towards Luvisols, as well as relict Andosol features
in Bt horizons of Luvisols, support the idea that in the
sequence studied these Andosols and Luvisols indicate differ-
ent stages of soil development rather than different palaeocli-
mates. We conclude that the whole sequence of palaeosols
PT2–PT7 was formed under humid climatic conditions in
forest ecosystems, and thus assume that such environments
persisted throughout a major part of the Late Pleistocene.
The variability in properties observed in these palaeosols
results from differences in the duration of pedogenesis,
determined by the intervals between eruptions (which are
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
387
responsible for tephra deposition and burial of palaeosols).
Previous workers have emphasised the importance of the
time involved in soil formation as one of the key elements for
palaeoclimatic interpretation of buried Pleistocene palaeosols
(Boardman, 1985; Bronger et al., 1998).
Correlation with other palaeoclimate records
Lozano-Garcı́a et al. (1993), Lozano-Garcı́a and Xelhuantzi-
López (1997), Caballero et al. (1999a) report a period of
lower lake-levels and drier climate in the first half of the
Holocene, consistent with our interpretation of palaeosol
PT1.
More problems arise in the correlation of palaeosol
palaeoclimatic inferences with the lacustrine records of the
Last Glacial Maximum (marine OIS 2). Several authors have
interpreted pollen and diatom assemblages, lithology and
magnetic properties of lake sediments corresponding to this
period as evidence of ‘cool and dry’ palaeoclimate (Lozano-
Garcı́a et al., 1993; Lozano-Garcı́a and Ortega-Guerrero,
1994; Ortega Guerrero et al., 2000). However, palaeosol
unit PT2, formed during marine OIS 2, shows only evidence
of humid pedogenesis. It should be noted that nearly all
published palynological spectra from closed basins in central
Mexico point to the abundance (⬎ 50% in most samples)
of arboreal pollen (especially Pinus and Quercus) in the
sediments, corresponding to the Last Glacial Maximum
(Straka and Ohngemach, 1989; Lozano-Garcı́a et al., 1993;
Lozano-Garcı́a and Ortega-Guerrero, 1994; Bradbury, 1997).
Although it is known that Pinus pollen is over-represented
(Lozano-Garcı́a and Xelhuantzi-López, 1997), these values
nevertheless are well above those of Pinus sp. in pollen rain
from modern grasslands of the Basin of Mexico. So, the
‘cool and dry’ palaeoenvironment of the Last Glacial
Maximum does not imply true arid conditions that would
have completely suppressed forest ecosystems. It is thought
to have been somewhat drier than in previous stages, pro-
moting the advance of grasslands and decrease in diversity
of tree species, but allowing development of ‘open mixed
pine and oak forests’ (Lozano-Garcı́a and Ortega-Guerrero,
1994; S. Lozano-Garcı́a, personal communication, Instituto
de Geofı́sica, UNAM, March 2000).
The contradiction between palaeosol and lacustrine rec-
ords could be related to the differentiation of palaeoveg-
etation and palaeoclimates within the mountain basins. Loz-
ano-Garcı́a and Ortega-Guerrero (1994) suggest that open
forests dominated highlands and grasslands developed
around the sub-basin of Chalco during the Late Pleistocene.
Contemporary annual precipitation in the northern part of
the Basin of Mexico varies from 800 mm below 2500 m to
1200 mm above 3000 m (Meza, 1980). It is highly probable
that palaeosols located on the volcano flanks reflect more
humid palaeoenvironments of the highlands, whereas lake
sediments were more influenced by drier conditions of the
basin bottom.
Finally, lacustrine records show short-term environmental
changes for the period corresponding to marine OIS 2.
Pollen and diatom spectra from Lake Chalco reveal several
humid events prior to 15 000 yr BP, and finally considerable
humidisation between 15 000 and 12 000 yr BP (Lozano-
Garcı́a et al., 1993). Magnetic properties of lake sediments
also show sharp fluctuations (Ortega-Guerrero et al., 2000).
Some of these changes seem to be related to volcanic
activity. It is known that ‘soil memory’ (concept of Targulian
and Sokolova, 1996) reflects humid phases better than arid
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 16(4) 375–389 (2001)
388 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
ones in the case of polygenetic soil formation. Products
of arid pedogenesis (accumulation of exchangeable bases,
carbonates, salts) are rapidly wiped away during the suc-
ceeding humid phase, whereas the results of humid pedogen-
esis (especially of weathering, clay mineral formation and
illuviation) persist during arid phases and result in a cumulat-
ive effect. It therefore is expected that palaeosol unit PT2,
which (according to lacustrine records) is likely to experience
climatic oscillations and the final humid phase, should show
more evidence of humid pedogenesis.
Data from different lake sediment cores of the Basin of
Mexico agree with our interpretation in characterising the
period corresponding to the formation of palaeosol PT3, as
dominated by humid conditions (Lozano-Garcı́a and Ortega-
Guerrero, 1998; Caballero et al., 1999). Recently the palyno-
logical data from the exposure covering 37 000–28 000 yr
BP in the Upper Lerma basin (close to the palaeosol sites
studied) were reported by Caballero et al. (in press). One of
the pollen assemblages indicates rather dry climatic con-
ditions and spread of grassland vegetation during the first
part of the interval referred to. This conflicts with the
interpretation of pedocomplex PT3 formed in the same per-
iod. A plausible explanation is that the palynological assem-
blage registers a rather short-term dry episode, which,
because of its short duration, was not sufficient to change
the pedogenic properties.
Very few data concerning environmental dynamics before
ca. 35 000 yr BP have been published. The only lacustrine
record for the past 50 000 yr coming from the northern
Basin of Mexico (Caballero et al., 1999) indicates humid
climate and domination of forest vegetation for the interval
50 000–37 000 yr BP—in good agreement with the properties
of lower palaeosols of the Toluca sequence. No proof of an
extensive period of aridisation before 30 000 yr BP, exhibited
in the scheme of late Quaternary environmental change of
Heine (1984), was found in the palaeosols studied.
A number of recent studies have shown that in a major
part of the tropical belt, extensive climatic changes, linked
to glacial–interglacial cycles, took place. During the Last
Glacial Maximum aridisation, which caused a dramatic
decrease in tropical forests, has been proven for a number
of regions including northern South America (Sarnthein,
1978). Our palaeopedological data confirms the hypothesis
of Bradbury (1997), which holds that, as opposed to aridis-
ation in adjacent regions, humid climate persisted in part of
Mesoamerica west of 95°W during the Last Glacial
Maximum.
Acknowledgements This research is part of the project ‘Paleosols
as indicators of environmental changes in volcanic zones of Central
Mexico’ funded by CONACYT (National Council of Science and
Technology of Mexico), grant number 32337-T. Radiocarbon analy-
ses were undertaken by L. Sulerzhitsky. Thin-sections were prepared
by E. Jiménez; photographs were processed by A. Altamira. A.
Bronger, S. Lozano and V. Targulian critically read the paper, José-
Luis Macı́as gave valuable comments on stratigraphy and chronology
of volcanic sediments of Nevado de Toluca and Barbara Martiny
improved the language. We thank also Beatrı́z Ortega and the
anonymous reviewer whose critical remarks greatly improved this
paper.
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