ATPL Notes - Systems

SYSTEMS
1 – AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES & AERODYNAMIC LIMITATIONS
STRESSES TENSILE STRENGTH BEAM MOMENTS

• Load per cross sectional area. • Even more stretching after the elastic limit • Moment = Force x Distance
will cause the material to neck (get thinner). • Max bending moment on a wing occurs at
• Tension (tensile stress) – EG/ fuselage • Stress increases since the cross sectional the root due to furthest distance from load.
• Compression – EG/ top of wing area reduces. • Support is thicker and end is thinner – thus
• Shear (cutting) – EG/ wing root bolts • Just before failure, the material has saving weight.
• Torsion (twisting) maximum strength per unit of cross
• Bending – Compression + Tension + Shear sectional area. This is the tensile strength.
• Buckling – Uneven compressive load STRUTS

TYPES OF LOADS BASIC STRUCTURAL MEMBERS • Struts are designed to withstand mainly
compressive loads.
• Static – Continually applied, no change. • Tend to buckle under load before failure.
• Dynamic – Constantly changes BEAMS
• Normally hollow.
• Cyclic – Continually applied and removed.
• They can be either simply supported (both
ends) or be cantilever (one end only). TIE
STRAINS
• They are subject to bending with one side in

tension and the other in compression. • Ties are designed mainly to withstand
• Strain is deformation due to stress.
• Beams in aircraft are usually an I / H section tensile loads.
• Initially proportional to stress and will
and the same strength as a whole beam is • Normally constructed of solid rod or a wire
return to original shape.
possible due to interaction of compression of relatively small diameter.
• Plastic deformation -‐ Once elastic limit is and tension (but it is of course lighter).
exceeded, stretching will continue but will
not return to original.
SYSTEMS 1 – AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES & AERODYNAMIC LIMITATIONS
THE FUSELAGE SEMI -‐ MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE FUSELAGE TYPES

• Majority of stress dissipated by internal • Circular
THE FUSELAGE components and very little by the skin. o Good for containing hoop stress
• Gives a strong, relatively light structure with o Lowest amount of skin drag for volume
• Accommodates crew and payload lots of space. o Bad for space
• Supports other components of the aircraft. • Longerons – Longitudinal (Main stresses) • Rectangular
• Subject to a number of stresses in flight: • Frames – Vertical (Stress + gives rigidity) o Max use of space
o Nose and tail droop down causing • Stringers – Support the skin o Bad for pressurization
tension on top and compression • Bulkheads – Airtight for pressurisation o Used in light a/c and non pressurised
underneath. transporters.
o Compounded by tail exerting downforce • Oval
o A380 Design
o Good use of space
TRUSS TYPE FUSELAGE o Best compromise for pressurisation
o Requires very strong floor beams.
• Frame supports the load, skin is merely to o Double bubble section can be used to
cover and reduce drag. reduce total tension on each frame.
• Longerons run longitudinally and provide
the main load bearing.
• Supported both vertically, horizontally and PRIMARY VS SECONDARY STRUCTURE
diagonally with web members to give
complete rigidity. • Primary -‐ A critical load-‐bearing structure.
• No space for payload so mainly on light • Secondary – Structural elements mainly to
aircraft. HOOP STRESS provide enhanced aerodynamics.

• Large forces which push the fuselage
MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE outwards as a result of pressurisation.
• Tension in frames.
• Skin takes all the load. • Bending in longerons, stringers and skin.
• No internal load bearing structure although
former rings sometimes fitted to give
shape.
• No ability to add doors etc otherwise ability
of skin to withstand stress is destroyed.
THE WINGS / MAINPLANE TORSION BOX THE TAIL

• Supporting the twisting motion of lift of the
THE WINGS wings. TAIL SECTION
• Links the spars, skins and ribs.
• Semi-‐monocoque design • One in each wing plus a centre spar to link • Semi-‐monocoque design
• Spars – Withstand bending and torsional the two wings.
loads • Wing torsion can result from positive sweep
• Ribs – Gives shape. Holes make it stronger
and lighter.
• Stringers – Support the skin.
• Centre spar can also be included to
supported undercarriage etc.
SANDWICH TYPE CONSTRUCTION HONEYCOMB CONSTRUCTION

WING BENDING ON GROUND AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ATTACHMENT METHODS

• Wings and undercarriage on ground are • Aluminum Alloy • Riveting
subject to heavy loads so the Maximum o Raw aluminum lacks strength + rigidity o Can be flush or round headed
Ramp Mass is set to limit stress. o Mixed with 4-‐6% copper = Duralumin o Flush type is more aerodynamic but
o Good conductor and improved strength more expensive.
o Difficult to weld & good thermal o Cracks can originate at rivet points.
WING BENDING IN FLIGHT conductivity • Bolts
• Magnesium Alloy o Allows for separation of materials when
• Lift acts to bend wings upwards. o Lightweight but lack strength and are required.
• Fuel and engines help to reduce bending. brittle. o Vibrations can cause nuts to become
• The greatest bending moment at the wing o Easily moulded into complex shapes loose. This is prevented by wire locking.
root occurs with high fuselage mass and o Used in gearbox casing and wheel rims • Welding
zero fuel (wings bending up). The • Steel o A very tough bond is created.
maximum zero fuel mass is therefore set o Bolts etc o Load spread over a large area.
to limit stress. o Carbon added to improve load bearing • Pinning
• The leading edge is subject to compression o + chromium = stainless steel o Good for attaching components that
then tension (from root to tip) • Titanium experience shear stress.
o Very resistance to high temperatures o Can be undone at a later date.
o Turbines etc • Adhesives

• Plastic o Easy to use and can bond large areas.
FUSELAGE BENDING IN FLIGHT o Easy to mould but has poor strength. o Permanent and have relatively low
o Interiors mechanical strength.
• Bending moment around fuselage due to • Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRPs)
download on the horizontal stabiliser to o Layers of fibres (glass, Kevlar, carbon)
counteract the lift-‐weight couple. provide the strength and the filler gives
the stiffness.
o CFRP = Carbon Fibre
o KFRP = Kevlar
o GFRP = Glass
DESIGN LIMIT LOAD (DLL) OXIDATION DAMAGE TOLERANT

• Max load a designer thinks a component will • When a substance mixes with oxygen in • Compromise between safe life and fail safe.
be subjected to in the normal lifespan of the the air to form a different substance. • Components are made thicker and
aircraft. • Corrosion – When metal mixes with oxygen stronger than required so they still have the
required strength if damaged / fatigued /
• Can be accelerated by moisture. corroded.
DESIGN ULTIMATE LOAD (DUL) • Electrolytic oxidation – Accelerated by a

flow of electrons due to two dissimilar
• DUL = 1.5 x DLL materials touching each other.
• Components are designed not to fail until o Prevented by bonding. CABIN WINDOWS
this load is reached.
• Gives an extra ‘safety factor’ • Two panes of laminated glass separated by
• Must still remain substantially intact after an air gap.
experiencing this load. • Lamination increases resistance to stress.
DESIGN PHILOSPHIES
COCKPIT WINDOWS
SAFE LIFE
FATIGUE • 3 layers of glass separated by 2 layers of
• Each component tested to destruction and a polythene.
• High repetitive / cyclic stress may cause a safety factor then applied. • Iridium heating layer also used:
small crack which will get bigger over time. • All components must be replaced when they o Prevents glass breaking from its
• As cross section is reduced, the stress reach the safe life number of cycles. brittle nature at low temperatures.
increases to a point where a sudden fracture • Requires lots of aircraft downtime. o Anti-‐Ice
will occur. This is fatigue failure.
• The greater the magnitude of the cyclic
stress, the earlier failure will occur.
FAIL SAFE
• Fatigue life is the number of cycles left in a

component.
• More load bearing members than required
are installed to give redundancy in the event
of failure.
• Large increase in weight.
AIRCRAFT DOORS CREW SAFETY

CLASSIFICATION PROBABILITY PAX EFFECTS
WORKLOAD MARGINS
• Inwards opening so when cabin is FREQUENT /
Physical No effect / slight
pressurised they cannot be opened. MINOR REASONABLY Slight Increase
Discomfort reduction
• Unpressurised doors will open outwards PROBABLE (10-‐3)
but hinges are on the forward edge so Physical Distress
Significant
airflow keeps them almost shut in case they MAJOR REMOTE (10-‐5) Significant Increase (Inc Possible
reduction
are opened. Injuries)
Excessive Serious or fatal
EXTREMELY
HAZARDOUS Workload (Inc injury to small Large reduction
REMOTE (10-‐7)
POSITION REFERENCING Physical Distress) number of pax

EXTREMELY
CATASTROPHIC Multiple fatalities Possible hull loss
REMOTE (10-‐9)

SYSTEMS 2 – HYDRAULICS
PASCALS LAW DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS FLUID TYPES CANNOT BE MIXED

• If a force is applied to a liquid in a • Expensive • Seal damage
confined space, then this force is felt • Risk of leakage • Internal leaks
equally in all directions. • Susceptible to contamination • Reduced efficiency
• Fluid is not compressible.

HYDRAULIC FLUID PROPERTIES SINGLE ACTING HAND PUMP
CONVERSIONS
• Incompressible • Does not provide a continuous flow as pump
• 1 inch = 2.54 cm • Low viscosity (flows easily) needs to be refilled after every stroke.
• 1 lbs = 0.454 kgs • Good lubrication properties
• PSI (lbs / inch2) is used in aviation • Remains liquid over a large range of temps
• Fire resistant DOUBLE ACTING HAND PUMP
• Prevent corrosion
MULTIPLACTION OF FORCES • As piston moves up, fluid expelled via the
top non-‐return valve and bottom non return
• Changing the area of pistons will give us a MINERAL BASED FLUIDS valve allows fluid into bottom of cylinder.
multiplication of forces. • As piston move down, transfer valve opens
• A system with greater PSI will allow a • Red in colour and fluid is expelled via the top non return
smaller area to be used. • Used in military / turboprops valve.
• Good lubrication • Hand pumps used by ground personnel
• Good corrosion prevention only.
ADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
• Not prone to foaming
• Multiplication of forces
• Flexibility SYNTHETIC BASED FLUIDS
• Compact
• Economical • Purple / green / amber in colour
• Remotely controlled surfaces • Used in commercial aircraft
• A.KA Skydrol / Phosphate Ester Based

• Less prone to cavitation
• Reduced fire risk (assume none)
• Can withstand higher pressures
PRESSURISED RESERVOIR DOUBLE ACTING ACTUATOR GEAR PUMP

• Uses air from the high pressure • Fluid on both sides of the piston. • Engine Driven
compressor to pressurise the reservoir. • Significant force can bow be applied in both • One of the gears is the ‘driven gear’
o Connected to an air pressure regulator directions. • Pressure differential between gears forces
(APR) on the reservoir. • A 4 port rotary selector is used. fluid between the teeth cavities.
o Downstream of the HPC an air – to – o Solenoid used to move between the o Increasing Volume = Low Pressure
cooler is used along with a de-‐hydrator different positions. o Decreasing Volume = High Pressure
to remove moisture that results from
cooling.
• Pressurisation prevents cavitation.
o Formation of air bubbles due to low
pressure which can damage the system.
• Pressurisation can also be achieved through
a piston within the reservoir.
• Variations in fluid level caused by:
o Actuator displacement
o Thermal expansion
• When system is pressurised, level in the
BALANCED DOUBLE ACTING PISTON PUMP
reservoir will fall.

• Volume differential requires more fluid to • Constant Volume Engine Driven Pump
move to the right compared with left. • AKA Constant Delivery Pump
SINGLE ACTING ACTUATOR • Used in the main systems such as flight
• A dummy piston rod is fitted to balance.
controls and landing gears.
• Fluid on one side of the piston and a spring • Has a larger capacity than gear pump.
on the other. • Regulator (ACOV) required as there is
TYPES OF PUMPS
• Most suited for when a force is only always a supply of oil into the system.
required in one direction.
• Hand
• A selector valve is used to extract / retract
• Engine
• Electrical
• RAT
HYDRAULIC LOCK • PTU
• Air Driven Pumps
• Actuator Stationary + No Fluid Flow
HYDRAULIC MOTOR CLOSED CENTRE SYSTEM PRESSURE FILTER

• Used for flaps and slats. • Actuators in parallel • Pressure Filter – Supply filter located after
• High pressure supply (via a piston pump) is • Several can be operated at the same time the pump.
pumped in and converted into rotary • Scavenge Filter – Return filter located
movement. before reservoir.
AUTOMATIC CUT OFF VALVE • Rated in microns (1 micron = 1/1000 mm)
which is the smallest particle it will allow.
• Required in a closed centre hydraulic • A pressure differential builds up on the
system using a constant volume pump. filter as particles are trapped.
• Regulates the system pressure and routes o Causes the bypass filter to open.
fluid back to reservoir when there is no o Tell tale button (for engineers) is
demand. popped plus a cockpit indication is
• The PRV acts as a ‘back-‐up’ in this case. given.
• An internal leak will cause the ACOV to cut
in frequently.
ACCUMMULATORS
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

• Works as an energy storage
• When system pressure overcomes the
• Removes the need for a pump so large to
spring tension the valve opens.
cope with extremes of demand.
• An adjustment screw is provided to
• Pre-‐charged to 1/3 SP with Nitrogen
prevent the ball floating (internal leakage).
o Compressible
o Oil is forced through the narrow gap by
o Inert (no reaction with oil)
the side of the ball causing a
• A floating piston ensures the lines receive
temperature increase.
extra pressure when system pressure
• In isolated oil lines, this PRV acts as a
fluctuates or is not enough.
thermal pressure relief valve. • Floating piston / bladder / diaphragm type
o Brake system, flap system etc • Insufficient pre-‐charge pressure
causes:
o Reduced brake applications in the
OPEN CENTRE SYSTEM
event of failure

o Frequent ACOV operation
• Actuators in series
o Pressure fluctuation + chattering
• Can only operate one at a time
CONSTANT PRESSURE PUMP TWIN ENGINE JET SYSTEM ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN PUMP

• A.K.A Variable Displacement Pump • 3 Hydraulic Systems • Used to supplement the engine driven
• Output pressure is also delivered to a piston. o Blue pumps if required.
• When pressure required is met, spring force o Green
is overcome and swash plates reduces angle o Yellow (Emergency)
(and hence output). • Each has their own reservoir PUMP PREFERENCES
• Swash plate return to max angle when there • Fluid cannot be transferred between them.
is demand requiring an increase in output. 1. Engine Driven Pump
• Removes the need for an ACOV. 2. Power Transfer Unit
• A casing drain is used to monitor condition DOUBLE ACTING TANDEN ACTUATOR 3. Electrically Driven Pumps
of the pump by collecting an oil sample. 4. Ram Air Turbine
o Also includes an overheat sensor • Fed directly by two systems to provide
redundancy in the case of failure.
• Used for the critical systems. NON RETURN VALVE

ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP CONTROL • AKA Check Valve
POWER TRANSFER UNIT • Flow stops when input press < output press
• Activation of the fire handle causes a • Similar to an electronic diode (flow in one
solenoid to automatically block the output. • Used to transfer power from one system to direction only)
o Pressure build up causes swash plate to another without exchanging any fluid.
lower its angle and reduce output until • Comprises of two mechanically coupled
the engine stops. hydraulic pumps.
• Activation of the shut-‐off switch blocks the o The pump in the good system acts as SHUTTLE VALVE
inlet supply. a hydraulic motor to allow the pump
o Allows the pump to be turned off in the failed system to operate. • Allows two hydraulic sources to supply
without having to shut down engine. one service.
• Will use the system supplying the highest
RAM AIR TURBINE (RAT) pressure.

• An emergency hydraulic pump.
• Power by a constant speed turbine
suspended into the relative airflow.
• Used in the yellow system.
RESTRICTOR VALVE HYDRAULIC FUSE PRESSURE MAINTAING (PRIORITY) VALVE

• Permits a full flow in one direction and a • Prevents a loss of hydraulic fluid in the • Will shut off hydraulic
limited flow in the other. event of a leak occurring downstream of supply to non-‐essential
• Fitted to u/c up line (extension) and flap up the fuse. services in the event of
line (retraction) a significant reduction
in system pressure.

PRESSURE RELAY

FLOW CONTROL VALVES • Used in older aircraft that use a direct
reading gauge such as a Bourdon Tube.
• Maintains a constant flow of fluid to an • Prevents fluid from entering the cockpit
actuator required to operate at constant PRESSURE REDUCERS in the event of a fracture.
speed. • Fitted between system and pressure gauge.
• Not all systems are
required to operate at
full pressure. HYDRAULIC FLUID HEAT EXCHANGER
• EG/ Autobrakes
• Can be adjusted in • Friction within the engine driven pump
flight whereas PRV is heats up the oil.
fixed. • Oil from the case drain is cooled before
returning to the reservoir.
• Ram air or fuel may be used as the cooling
SEQUENCE VALVE medium, reducing total drag of the aircraft.

• Ensures the correct order of operation in
systems such as the landing gear
(undercarriage + door actuator).
• Hydraulic & Mechanical sequence valves are
possible.
HYDRAULIC SEALS WORKING PRESSURE OVERHEAT DETECTORS

• Shape used varies depending on pressures • The maximum steady pressure within a • Can be installed at the pumps.
and direction from which the pressure is system under normal operating
applied. conditions.
• U & V = Pressure from one direction
• O & Square = Pressure from both directions
LIMIT PRESSURE

• Anticipated max pressure acting on a
HOSE ASSEMBLIES
components.

• Includes a tolerance and any possible
• Part of the hydraulic system most prone to
variations in normal operating modes but
failure.
excludes transient pressures (due fluid
• Bulge in hose or an oily residue around
hammer effects).
the joints are sign of impending burst.
SAFETY FACTOR
POWER PACK HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
• System must be designed to handle PW and
• Normally used in light aircraft where gear is PL loads multiplied by a safety factor.
the only hydraulic system.
• Pump is powered by a DC electric motor.
• Pump only active for a few seconds during LEAK IDENTIFICATION
extention / retraction.
• Load on engine and maintenance • Internal Leak: Rise in temperature
requirements are significantly reduced. • External Leak: Fall in reservoir level
THERMAL RELIEF VALVES

• Fitted to isolated lines.
SYSTEMS 4 – LANDING GEAR
TAILDRAGGER DESIGN SHOCK ABSORBERS TORQUE LINKS

• Simple and lightweight • Provides gradual vertical deceleration. • Prevents inner cylinder rotating within
• Loading whilst tilted • A.KA. Ole-‐Pneumatic Strut the outer cylinder.
• Reduced forward visibility • Consists of Nitrogen (pre-‐charged) and Oil. • Also limits max entension when in flight.
• Pitch down tendency on braking o Oil is the dampening agent. It limits • Bearings required to enable smooth
• Group Loop the speed of extension and movement.
• Poor braking action (due increased AoA on compression in the strut. • A ground / air safety switch (squat switch)
landing) o Nitrogen acts as a spring can be fitted to the torque link.
• Inner cylinder is connected to the wheel o Prevents gear retraction on ground
• Above are removed by the tricycle design • Outer cylinder is connect to the airframe
• Sliding restrictor prevents bouncing
SHIMMY DAMPER
o AKA Metering Orifice
GEAR TYPES o Low resistance during compression
o High resistance during extension • Shimmy is oscillations during ground ops
Main | Body | Nose | Body | Main • A separator is normally present although • Possible on both main and nose gears.
not required. • Causes of shimmy:
• Main & Body = Braking o Lighter, simpler and cheaper without o Uneven tyre pressures
• Nose = Steerable but no braking o Oil and nitrogen mix however and o U/S shimmy damper
damping ability reduced with cycles. o Work torque link bearings
• Shimmy damper connected to strut / toque
GEAR ARRANGEMENTS link to reduce effects.

CENTERING CYLINDER

• Centres the landing gear after takeoff to
ensure it fits within the wheel well.
STEERING CYLINDER

• Allows for hydraulic steering.
• Operated by rudder pedals / tiller
GROUND LOCKS ACCIDENTAL RETRACTION PREVENTION BOGIE LANDING GEAR

• Prevent retraction of gear when static on • When weight comes off wheels, the switch is • Used when 4 / 6 wheels are on one strut.
the ground. closed and a solenoid removes the locking • Allowed to pitch up and down to ensure all
• Must be removed before flight. pin from gear handle. 4 wheels take equal loads.
• An override button is present for • Allows smaller wheels to be used.
emergency use. • Taxiing with a small turning radius will
NOSEWHEEL STEERING give the greatest loads on a torsion link if
fitted.
• Tiller provides greater deflection than
rudder. HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM
• 747 body gear also rotates in opposite
direction to nosewheel. • Extension is slowed with a restrictor valve
• NWS disconnect allows powered steering to prevent rapid extension when combined
to be turned off for push / tow. with airflow.
o Prevents cavitation
o Normally on mains only
UP-‐LOCK GEAR INDICATIONS • Actuator dimension cause nosewheel to
retract faster than mains.
• Hydraulically operated uplock. • None = Up & Locked
• Spring “over-‐centre” used to hold hook in a • Red = In Transit
locked / unlocked position. • Green = Down & Locked EMERGENCY EXTENSION

• Truck light (amber) illuminates when trucks • Uplocks removed and gear lower in free
DOWN-‐LOCK not in level position for retraction. fall due to gravity.
• A door position light will also illuminate if • Main doors will remain open
• Hydraulically locked. doors are not locked. • Initially 3 greens and 2 reds
• Overcentre geometric lock used. o Selector still in up position
o 1 red to indicate open doors once
PISTON VS MOTOR selector is moved to down position.

• Piston actuators are used instead of
hydraulic motors as alternate gear
extension can be done easier. (Linear vs
rotary)
WHEELS BRAKE PURPOSE MULTI DISC BRAKE UNIT ANTI-‐SKID UNIT

• Convert kinetic energy into heat energy. • Actuator used to compress the pressure • Purpose
• Heat generated depends on: plate. o Provides max braking efficiency
o Aircraft mass • Rotor discs move with the wheel whilst o Reduced landing run
o Brake application speed stator discs remain fixed. o Better directional control
o Runway slope • Either side of the stator disc are friction o Increases tyre life
o Wind component pads.
• Function 1 – Normal Skid Control

LP BRAKE SYSTEM 𝑵𝑳𝑮 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 − 𝑴𝑳𝑮 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒑 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑵𝑳𝑮 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
• Shuttle valve used to decide whether
footbrake or parking brake pressure is used. o NLG is used as the ground speed
reference since it’s not used for braking
o 10 – 30 % is the ideal ratio
DRUM BRAKE o When ratio exceeded, brakes released

• Type fitted to most cars. • Wear measurement pin becomes flush • Function 2 – Touchdown Protection
• Poor heat dissipation when brake pads are worn. o When weight off wheels, an artificial full
• Rapid expansion when heated. o Brakes must be set when checking. skid signal is generated before
• Carbon fibre brakes most commonly used touchdown.
nowadays:
DISC BRAKE o Lighter • Function 3 – Locked Wheel Protection
o Absorb more heat o Brakes fully released when wheels
• C152 style o Stopping capability improves with locked to prevent a skid.
• Disc rotates with wheel temperature
• Two brake pads either side of wheel • Some disadvantages of carbon brakes: • Function 4 – Failsafe Protection
o Expensive o Returns brake system to full manual
o One fixed and one moved by a small
actuator. o Corrosive (react with de-‐ice fluid) operation in case of systems failure.
o More prone to wear when cold
o Very susceptible to wear when • System disconnects when <20 kts
snubbed during taxi. • Works on the principle of decreasing
pressure at the slower turning wheels.
• Brake unit dragging caused by incorrect
operation of the adjuster assemblies.
AUTOBRAKE SYSTEM BRAKE FADE PARKING BRAKE

• Prerequisites: • In a drum brake system, heat from friction • No parking brakes in hangar – allows for
o Hydraulic Pressure causes radial expansion which reduces emergency evacuation.
o Autobrake System ON stopping power. • No parking brakes during refueling –
o Deceleration rate selected allows to aircraft to adapt to CoG changes.
o Anti-‐skid ON and serviceable • In a multi-‐disc brake, when oil is heated to • When ON, all other braking systems
o Spoilers armed its boiling point vapour bubbles are including ASU and TD protection are
o Brake pedals not depressed formed making it less effective. inhibited.
o Idle throttle setting o Do not set park brake in flight.

• Disengage Triggers:
BRAKE OVERHEAT
o Anti-‐skid system selected OFF BRAKE ACCUMULATOR

o Manual braking applied
• Loss of braking performance
o Speedbrake lever moved forwards • Pressurised to 3000 psi
o Throttle levers advanced • Fire hazard
• Minimum of 6 brake applications
• Tyre deflation / explosion
available to stop aircraft.
• Normal autobrake settings provide o Explosion prevented by a fusible plug
• Once 1000 psi is present, only Nitrogen is in
constant deceleration. that deflates tyre gradually.
the accumulator so it has been used up.
• RTO is not controlled.

• Autobrakes become most effective once BRAKE FAILURE BRAKE EFFECTIVENESS
reverse thrust has been disengaged.
• Runway excursions • No spoilers = 60% of weight on wheels
• Unwanted a/c ground movement • With spoilers = 80% of weight on wheels
BRAKE
TEMPERATURE SENSORS • Braking effectiveness and drag increased by
130% with spoilers deployed.
• Fitted to each brake unit BRAKE FIRE
• Refuelling not possible when brakes are
overheated. • Never use water based extinguishers. WHEEL TYPES
• Overheat warning can be fitted to the wheel • Dry powder is the extinguishing agent.
/ undercarriage bay. • Usually of aluminium / magnesium alloy
• Most aircraft are tubeless
• C152 is a tubed tyre
• Inflated with Nitrogen (inert)
AQUAPLANING
TUBELESS TYRES TYRE VENTING

• Occurs when runway is contaminated
• Has a radial side casing • Tyres are made from piles. More piles gives
o > 3mm standing water / snow / slush
• Requires solid / branched wheels a stronger tyre.
• Zero friction coefficient
• A casing vent is installed on tubeless tyres
• Rubber reversion (burning) can occur
• Less weight to prevent Nitrogen from getting between
the piles and causing separation which will when aquaplaning as standing water
• Less chance of punctures and deflation.
becomes superheated.
• Will not burst in event of puncture reduce their strength.
• If tyre pressure is too low, aquaplaning can
• Has a better adjustment to wheels • Indicated by green dots on tyre.
occur at a lower speed.
• Runs cooler due to lack of friction between
tyre and tube.
TYRE CREEP 𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝟗 × √𝑷 (𝒑𝒔𝒊)
𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝟑𝟒 × √𝑷 (𝒃𝒂𝒓)
TYRE STRESS • Movement of tyre around the rim.
• Can result in inflation valve being ripped
• High Impact Load out causing deflation. TYRE WEAR
• High Speeds • Check tyre creep before flight.
• High Temperature Due Braking • When marker tie bar becomes visible /
flush, tread must be replaced.
• Tyre Limiting Speed – Max Ground Speed TREAD PATTERNS
• If a tyre is left in the same spot for a long
period of time a flat spot can occur. • Ribbed Tread
o Most widely used
• Crown – Withstands the wear of normal o Low rolling resistance
operation (contains tread). o Good directional stability + traction
• Shoulder – Not designed to take wear. • All Weather Tyres
• Sidewalls – Thinnest and weakest section • Chined Tyres
designed to flex when load applied. o Deflect water away from rear mounted
• Bead – Fits against rim of wheel. engines. TYRE WEAR
• Anti-‐Shimmy
o Twin contact tread • Taxy less than 20 kts / 40 kph to reduce
tyre wear
TYRE INFLATION / PRESSURE TYRE DAMAGE

• Nitrogen used to inflate tyres. • The following have a detrimental effect on
• Ventilation holes = Expected loss of 5%. tyre rubber:
o Tyres should be reinflated as normal. o Hydraluic fluid
• 5 – 10% drop should be inflated and a note o Oil
made in the tech log. o Grease
o Should be subsequently rejected if it • If not removed, the tyre will swell and
falls below 5%. become soft and spongy.
• > 10% drop should be rejected • Cut Tolerances – Reject if:
o Cut penetrates casing piles
• Hot tyre pressures will be approx. 10% o Cuts exposes the casing cords
above normal pressure. • Bulges – Sign of delamination.
• A tyre fitted to an aircraft should only be • Excessive Shoulder Wear – Underinflation
inflated by 4%

• If aircraft has taxied with a deflated tyre,
that tyre and its axial companion should be
scrapped (due supporting excessive load).
o If more than one tyre has been used
deflated, all tyres on that undercarriage
must be scrapped.
SYSTEMS 3 – FLYING CONTROLS
TYPES OF FLYING CONTROLS MASS BALANCE ELECTRICAL FLAPS

• Mechanically Operated • Reduced flutter • Driven by a reversible motor geared
o Reversible Controls • Fitted forward of the hinge through a lead screw.
o Cables / Push-‐Pull Roads o Electric motor – small aircraft
• Hydraulically Operated o Hydraulic motor – larger aircraft
o Irreversible Controls AILERON UPFLOAT • Lead screw prevents aerodynamic loads
o Power Assisted / Fully Powered from driving back the motor
• Fly-‐By-‐Wire • Reduces flutter • Micro-‐switch used to cut off supply when
o No mechanical connection between • Neutral position of ailerons is set above the flap reaches the requested position.
cockpit and control surface. trailing edge of the wing. • Flap asymmetry will lock flaps in position
• Upgoing wing produced more drag and when detected.
downgoing produces less.
CABLE COMPONENTS

GUST LOCKS
• Turnbuckle – Joins cables together and
provides cable tension.
• Can be both internal / external
• Rigging Pins – Allows for adjustment of
• External locks consist of two wooden
push-‐pull rod length.
blocks with neoprene rubber insets to
• Bell Crank – Allows for changing of push-‐ protect the surfaces.
pull rod angle.
• Pulleys – Change direction of control cables
• Fairleads – Keeps cables straight and clear TRIM TABS
of the structure.
• Can be operated both mechanically and
electrically.
CONTROL LIMIT STOPS
• Electrical type requires two switches to be

operated simultaneously.
• Protects the structure from excessive
o Prevents uncommanded trim runaway
loads.
• Operated via a screw jack.
• Lock wired & adjustable
• Primary Stops – Located on control surface
• Secondary Stops – Located in cockpit
o Provide redundancy in case of primary
failure.
POWERED FLYING CONTROLS FAIL SAFE SYSTEMS POSITION INDICATORS

• Manual Reversion
POWERED FLYING CONTROLS POSITION TRANSMITTERS
o Release Unit

o By-‐Pass Unit
• The following components are required in a • Position transmitters installed on each
• Dual PCFU
powered flying control system: control surface to indicate position to the
o Control Input System flight deck crew.
o Power Flying Control Unit (PFCU) TRIMMING POWERED FLYING CONTROLS
o Artificial Feel Unit
LIFT AUGMENTATION DEVICES
WHY TRIM

CONTROL INPUT SYSTEM • Pitch trim required for changes in: LIFT AUGMENTATION DEVICES
o Speed
• Allows for the mechanical positioning of the o Power • Normally powered via a hydraulic motor
servo valve within the PFCU. o CG Positions • Load limit devices will prevent flap
• Yaw trim required for: extention below the limiting speed and
o Changes in prop torque automatically retract them if their operating
PFCU
o Counter-‐acting asymmetric power on speed is exceeded.

• When hydraulic lock occurs, aerodynamic multi-‐engine aircraft
loads cannot move the control surface. This • Roll trim is not normally required by can be
SPOILERS
is therefore an irreversible system. used to correct for low-‐wing tendencies and
lateral displacements of the CG
ROLL SPOILERS
ARTIFICIAL FEEL
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILISER
• Mechanically linked to the ailerons.
• Prevents overstressing the aircraft. • Remain retracted on the upgoing wing and
• Results in less form drag
• Failure of the unit will result in light extended on the downgoing wing.
controls at all speeds. • Since the elevator is in the neutral position
when trimmed, the range of pitch control is • The inner most spoiler remains retracted to
prevent tail buffet.
not reduced. Full deflection still possible.
• Simple Spring Feel Unit
• Two switches are used to prevent trim
• Q Feel Unit
runaway.
• Hydraulic Q Feel Unit
• Operated by all 3 hydraulic systems for
• Combined System Layout
redundancy.
• Manual trim option provided in case of
pitch trim malfunction.

ROLL + SPEEDBRAKE OPERATION REVERSE THRUST FBW COMPUTERS

• If the speedbrakes are extended and a roll • ELAC (x2) = Elevator / Aileron Computer
command is input, a spoiler mix unit will REVERSE THRUST
• SEC (x3) = Spoiler / Elevator
determine the correct deflection to apply.
• FAC (x2) = Flight Augmentation Computer
• There will be greater extension on the • Active when the blocker doors are

downgoing and only partial extention on the deployed.
• There are multiple versions of each
upgoing wing. computer to provide redundancy.
AUTOPILOT • Furthermore, pitch axis control for example
will be spread across the ELAC and SEC
computers to provide further redundancy.
AUTOPILOT INPUTS
• In the event of complete computer failure,
• Command signal energises electrical coil rudder pedals and stabiliser trim can still
windings which cause a transfer valve to be operated manually.
relay inputs to the power control unit.
LIFT DUMPERS
FBW MODES

• Lever moves automatically from armed to FLY BY WIRE
• Normal
UP position.
o Complete envelope protection
• Conditions required:
FBW ADVANTAGES o Reversion to alternate / direct can
o Anti-‐skid unit operative
occur in event of system failures.
o Speedbrake lever ARMED
• Reduced Mass • Alternate
o Weight on wheels
• Reduced Maintenance o Partial protection provided
o Rotation of wheels
More rapid control response o Possible to stall the aircraft
o Thrust levers idle •
• Remote sensing / fault diagnostics • Direct
• Automatic gust load alleviation o No protection provided
TAIL UNIT AIRBRAKES • Fuel saving o Control surfaces move in direct
proportion to the amount of control
• Some aircraft (BAE 146) have roll spoilers input.
and lift dumpers on top of the wing and
separate airbrakes installed on the tail
section.
SYSTEMS 5 – AIR CON, PNEUMATICS & PRESSURISATION
PRESSURE & ALTITUDE TURBO-‐CHARGER DISADVANTAGES BLEED AIR SYSTEM

• Oxygen accounts from 21% of atmosphere • Possible carbon monoxide poisoning
• Partial pressure of O2 will decrease with height • At high altitude, engine requires more of the air BLEED AIR SYSTEM
however. from turbo-‐charger so pressurisation and air
• At MSL: 1013 x 21% = 212 hPa (Approx) con ability etc is reduced. • The most common way of providing pressurised
• At 18,000 ft: 500 x 21% = 106 hPa (Approx) air on large aircraft is using bleed air.
• Air is extracted from the H PC
• A cabin altitude limit of 8,000 ft is normally ROOTS DISPLACEMENT BLOWER • Normally extracted from the 5th Stage
used where the partial pressure is 750 x 21% = (Intermediate Pressure Stage).
150 hP • At low RPM, this is done from 9 th Stage (High
ROOTS DISPLACEMENT BLOWER Pressure Stage) at the pressure at the 5th is too
low.
PNEUMATIC AIR • Another method of obtaining pressurised air for • A check valve prevents air from the 9th stage
various services is via a dedicated cabin entering the 5th stage.
• Used for cabin pressurisation, air con, reservoir compressor.
pressurisation etc. • It is connected to the AGB.
AUXILLARY POWER UNIT
• Ram air is fed in and compressed.

• Can be generated using a turbocharger, roots • Prevents extracting air from the turbocharger
• On the ground when the engines are not
displacement blower or bleed air. (in piston aircraft) or the compressor (in gas
running, the APU provides the bleed air.
turbine aircraft) which lowers the engine
efficiency.
PISTON ENGINE SYSTEM HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Used to cool the bleed air
TURBO-‐CHARGER DESIGN to approx. 2000C

• Turbocharger is utilised • Utilises bleed air from the
• Can be the same one as used for power engine fan.
augmentation.
SYSTEMS&5&–&AIR&CON,&PNEUMATICS&&&PRESSURISATION&
( COMBUSTION&HEATING&
PISTON&ENGINE&CABIN&PRESSURISATION& TEMPERATURE&CONTROL&
(((((((((((((((((((((( &
• Used(on(the(Seneca(for(example.&
TURBOCHARGER& METHODS& • Part( of( the( fuel( supply( is( used( to( power( a(
& & combustion(heater.&
• Achieved(using(the(turbocharger(design.& • Control(of(temperature(is(achieved(by(either:& • A( temperature& sensor( will( cycle& the& fuel&
o Engine(Exhaust(Heating& supply( as( required( to( achieve( the( temperature(
o Combustion(Heating& level(as(set(by(the(pilot.(&
o Air(Cycle(Cooling& • In(flight,(ram&air(is(supplied(via(a(fan.&
• Stationary,( a( combustion& blower( provides( the(
required(air(supply(in(the(absence(of(ram(air.&
ENGINE&EXHAUST&HEATING& o Switched(off(in(flight.&
&
• Used(on(light&aircraft.&
• Ram& air( enters( through( forward( facing( air(
intakes.&
• Some( of( this( is( passed( through( a( heater& muff(
OUTFLOW&VALVE& where( exhaust( gas( in( close( proximity( heats( the(
& air(as(required.&
• To(fulfill(the(pressurisation(function,(an(outflow& • When( stationary,( a( fresh& air& blower& is( used(
valve&is(used(to(regulate(the(cabin(altitude.& when(there(is(no(ram(air.&
• Closed(at(high(altitude.& • Air( is( dumped( overboard( via( a( vent( on( the(
underside(of(the(aircraft(once(used.&
• There( is( always( a( constant& flow& in& and& out&
otherwise( the( pressure( would( build( up( and( the(
cabin(would(explode.&
• A( cabin& altitude& controller& controls( the( • Blockage( of( either(the( ram( air(/(combustion( air(
supply(causes(a(differential&pressure&switch&to(
position(of(the(outflow.&
cut(the(fuel(supply.&
• In( the( event( the( outlet( air( temp( becomes( too(
great,( a( limit& switch& will( temporarily( stop( the(
OTHER&COMPONENTS&
supply(of(fuel((hence(combustion)(thus(allowing(
&
air(to(cool.&
• Cabin&altimeter&is(used(to(provide(an(indication(
• A( second( protection( with( a( higher( temp( limit(
of(the(cabin(altitude.&
than(the(limit(switch(is(also(installed(in(case(the(
• Safety& /& dump& valve& opens(when(the(pressure(
limit(switch(fails(or(temp(is(too(great.&
differential(becomes(too(great.&
o Reset(can(only(be(done(on(the(ground.&
o Protects( against( failure( of( the( outflow(
valve.&
SYSTEMS&5&–&AIR&CON,&PNEUMATICS&&&PRESSURISATION&
( ROOTS&BLOWER& WATER&SEPERATOR&
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING&
((((((((((((((((((((((((( & &
• Utilises(the(roots& blower&to(provide(pneumatic( • Removes&excess&water&vapour&from(air.(
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING& air.& • An( ice& screen& can( also( be( fitted( to( prevent(
& • It(does(not(compress(air(but(merely(helps(air(to( blockage(of(the(turbine.(
• Main( method( of( temperature( control( within( overcome&the&back& pressure(that(exists(in(the( (
modern(jet(transport(aircraft.& system.& • Water( vapour( will( condense,( releasing( latent(
• The(following(system(designs(can(be(used:& • A(silencer&is(fitted(to(reduce(noise(created(when( heat(and(reducing(the(cooling(effect.&
o Displacement(Blower((Bootstrap)& air(passes(through(the(roots(blower.& • Water( vapour( must( also( be( removed( before(
o Bleed(Air((Bootstrap)& entering(cabin.&
o Brake(Turbine(System&
o Turbo(Fan(System& SPILL&VALVE&
• Air(cycle(machines( are( commonly(known( as(air& & TEMPERATURE&CONTROL&
conditioning&packs.& • Vents&excess&air&flow(to(atmosphere.& &
• Controlled(via(the(mass&flow&controller.& • Warm( (uncooled)( air( is( mixed( with( the( cooled(
• At(high(RPMs((blower(is(driven(by(the(AGB),(the( air( as( required( to( ensure( the( correct(
spill(valve(will(open(to(ensure(a(constant& mass& temperature(is(delivered(to(the(cabin.&
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING&–&DISPLACEMENT&BLOWER&
flow(is(delivered.&
OPERATION&
&
• Air(is(preJcooled&by(ram(air(across(the(primary&
heat&exchanger.&
• The( pressure( of( the( air( is( boosted( by( the(
compressor& in( order( to( make( the( energy(
conversion(at(the(turbine(stage(more(efficient.&
• A(secondary&heat&exchanger&removes(the(heat(
generated(as(a(result(of(compression.&
• Air(expands(in(order(to(drive(the(turbine&which(
results(in(lower&temperature(and(pressure.(&
“BOOTSTRAP&SYSTEM”&
&
• It( is( called( a(bootstrap( system( it( becomes(selfJ
sustaining&once(started.&
o Turbine(drives(compressor(which(drives(
turbine(etc.&
AIR COOLING – BLEED AIR (BOOTSTRAP) OTHER AIR CYCLE SYSTEMS DUCTING SYSTEM
OPERATION BRAKE TURBINE SYSTEM MIX MANIFOLD

• Same as bootstrap system except bleed air is • Uses only one heat exchanger so is lighter. • The airflow that is circulated within the cabin
used instead of the blower as the pneumatic air • The compressor functions as a brake to ensure comes from the mix manifold.
supply. turbine rpm does not become too great. • This receives inputs from the following sources:
• The engine bleed air valve is normally open • Cannot be used when stationary however due to o Packs (ACMs)
but is closed when the fire handle is pulled. lack of ambient airflow through compressor. o Ground pre-‐conditioned air
o Cabin re-‐circulated air

• In order prevent an increase in fuel
consumption by continuously using bleed air,
air from the cabin is sent back to the mixing
unit.
o It passes through filters which ensure it is
99% clean before entering mix unit.

• This recirculated air is mixed with fresh air
from the packs and distributed to the cabin.
• Flight deck is supplied with air straight from the
TURBO FAN SYSTEM left pack without mixing.
o Switches to right pack in case of left pack
• Turbine drives a fan to assist with the ram air failure.
cooling through the heat exchanger.
• This is a development of the brake turbine
system which allow for cooling whilst on the
ground.

SAFETY VALVES
AUXILLARY POWER UNIT PRESSURISATION

• Positive Pressure Relief Valve
PURPOSE LEGAL REQUIREMENTS o Opens when the Max Pressure Differential +
0.25 psi is exceeded
• The APU is a gas turbine engine that can be • Cabin conditions equivalent to 8,000 ft or less • Inward Pressure Relief Valve
used on the ground or in flight (on some types) • Heating / cooling facilities to ensure a o Opens when ambient pressure exceeds the
• It is a free turbine type with the turbine driving comfortable cabin temperature cabin pressure by 0.5 – 1 psi
a compressor that provides pneumatic air. • 1 lb of air per pax minute (0.4 lb in emergency) o Protects from structural compression in a
• ROC < 500 fpm & ROD < 300 fpm rapid descent for example.
• It can be used to provide bleed air in case of a • Dump Valve
pack failure or when engines are not o Operated by the flight crew
running. PRESSURISATION CONSIDERATIONS o Cabin pressure is rapidly reduced to zero
• It is used to provide bleed air for engine start. o Allows for clearing of cabin air in event of
• A suitably low cabin ROC and ROD must be smoke etc
• It also drives a gearbox to which a generator is achieved for passenger comfort. • Blow Out Panels
attached so electrical power can be provided. • Too low cabin ROC and ROD however can cause o Fitted between cabin and cargo
the maximum pressure differential to be compartments.
exceeded (red line). o Prevents collapsing of the floor in event of
cargo section undergoing rapid
• Pressurisation results in hoop stresses. decompression (cargo door blow out).
o Structure must be strong enough to
withstand pressurisation without being
too heavy. PRE-‐PRESSURISATION

• Occurs on ground when throttle levers are
advanced more than 10 degrees.
• Cabin pressurised slightly below ambient
• Allows for smoother transition when climbing
OTHER USES OF PNEUMATIC AIR
• Prevents inflow of exhaust gases.
OTHER USES

• Cargo brake systems
• Ice protection systems
• Pressurisation of hydraulic reservoirs
• Pneumatic engine start
• Thrust reverse

PRESSURE CONTROLLERS DOOR SEALING ALTITUDE TRIGGERS

• In AUTO mode, computers automatically control • Seals are fitted with adjustable rubber seals. • 10,000 ft
the required pressurisation. • These expand with an increase in pressure o Pilots provided with audible and visual
• There is an AUTO 1 & AUTO 2 option. differential to ensure adequate sealing. warnings.
o AUTO 1 = AC from engine 1 o Must don m asks at this point.
o AUTO 2 = AC from engine 2 • Unlocked door indications will be present above
doors and delivered to flight deck. • 14,000 ft
• Should AC sources fail, MAN can be selected. o Pax oxygen automatically deployed
• Uses DC power source.
• Pilots must manually set ROC & ROD CABIN SEALING • 15,000 ft
o Outflow valve automatically closes
• Cabin altimeter and “cabin VSI” installed to • Control runs, pipelines etc may have to pass
monitor pressurisation. through b ulkheads.
• Adequate sealing must be ensured to maintain RESIDUAL DOOR INDICATION
• For AUTO to function, following inputs must be cabin pressure.
provided to the system: • Max leak rate is 300 fpm • If cabin is still pressurised after landing, a
o FLT ALT residual pressure light illuminates on the door.
o LAND ALT • Pushing this switches open the outflow valve
o CABIN ALT manually to equalize the pressure.
TYPICAL FLIGHT PROFILE

• Ground / Flight switch changed to flight before
OUTFLOW VALVE OPERATION takeoff. DITCHING SWITCH
o Pre-‐pressurised to 0.1 psi
• Controlled by pressure controllers. • After takeoff, ground / air logic switched is • Will close all discharge valves to prevent inflow
• Open on ground and closed at altitude. activated. of water in the event of ditching.
• There is always a constant mass flow into the o System enters proportional control
cabin. • System changes to isobaric control whilst in the
• Within the isobaric range (cruise) there is also cruise.
a constant mass flow out. • Reverts back to proportional control for the
• Within the proportional range, there is a descent.
variable mass flow out as the valve is o Aims to achieve 0.1 psi on touchdown
continuously adjusted. • After landing, ground / flight switch changed to
ground.
o Outflow valve fully opens to equalize cabin
pressure

DECOMPRESSION TYPES OXYGEN SYSTEMS

• Explosive Decompression
o Catastrophic Leak OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS (UNPRESSURISED)
o Equalised in less than 0.5 seconds
o Very high risk of lung trauma • Oxygen must be available if flown above 10,000
• Rapid Decompression ft
o Equalised in more than 0.5 seconds
o Risk of lung damage still present bu
significantly reduced. OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS (PRESSURISED)
• Gradual Decompression
o Occurs very slowly • In pressurized passenger aircraft,
o May not b e sensed before hypoxia sets in supplementary oxygen is normally only used OXYGEN SYSTEMS -‐ CREW
temporarily in emergency until a descent to a
lower altitude has been achieved.
FACTORS AFFECTING DECOMPRESSION CREW OXYGEN SYSTEM
• Emergency oxygen equipment must be provided
• Decompression will b e most severe with: for pressurised aircraft certified to operate • Normally consists of a diluter demand system
o Small Cabin above 2 5,000 ft. with oxygen stored in high pressure gaseous
o Large Structural Damage • Pressurised aircraft certified to 25,000 ft or less form.
o High Pressure Differential do not require emergency oxygen equipment if • Oxygen is stored at 1800 psi and reduced in
they can descend to 13,000 ft or below within 4 pressure before consumption.
minutes (when taking into account route • The pure oxygen is mixed with cabin air in
SIGNS OF EXPLOSIVE / RAPID DECOMP. structure). order to save oxygen and prevent physiological
side effects.
• Loud bang (contact between air masses) o 100% Pure is provided at 33,000 ft
• Cloud / Fog (Increase in RH due lower temp) CREW OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS o Below 33,000 ft an aneroid controller mixes
• Rush of air the oxygen and cabin air in the appropriate
• Decrease in temperature • Above 25,000 ft with no quick donning masks amount.
• Release of oxygen masks require one pilot to be wearing a mask. • Flow of air is only provided when the pilot
• Above 41,000 ft one pilot should wear a mask inhales. This is indicated by a blinker indicator.
even if quick donning is fitted (depends on state • There are 3 settings available:
regulations) o Normal – Automatically mixed as req.
o 100% -‐ Pure oxygen provided
o EMER – 100% pure oxygen provided at an
overpressure to prevent inhalation of
fumes etc.
CONTINOUS FLOW W/CHEMICAL OXYGEN

OXYGEN SYSTEMS -‐ PASSENGERS EROS – QUICK DONNING MASKS

• Instead of gaseous oxygen, chemical oxygen can
be used. This is the most common type. EROS (QUICK DONNING) MASKS
CONTINOUS FLOW W/GASEOUS OXYGEN
• As there is no b arometric valve, a 28V electrical

signal releases the masks to the half-‐hung • Emergency Regulating Oxygen System
• When the cabin altitude reaches 14,000 ft, a
position. • When tabs are depressed, the mask is pre-‐filled
barometric valve opens and oxygen flows to
the low pressure regulator. • When pulled down, a firing mechanism is with oxygen allowing it to be fitted to the head.
triggered and a chemical reaction produced • When tabs are released, the oxygen is drained
• Pneumatic pressure opens the PSU doors and
100% oxygen. and it fastens to the head.
masks are deployed to the half-‐hung position.
• Thermal insulation is required due to the high
• When face masks are pulled down, the valve
temperatures arising from the reaction.
opens and oxygen flows.

• Holes on the masks allow the oxygen to be SMOKE HOODS

mixed with cabin air.

• In smoke conditions, pax masks should not
be used as the oxygen widens the trachea SMOKE HOODS

allowing for deeper smoke inhalation.

• Should an overpressure occur (due to a leak in • Provide complete coverage of the head.
the cylinder for example) a blow-‐out disc will • Contain a chemical oxygen generator.
be activated. This a pre-‐flight check item. • Provides a minimum of 15 mins supply.
• Again, this is mixed with cabin air in the mask
• America = Green Oxygen Bottles
face.
• Europe = Black Oxygen Bottles
• A cylinder is fitted to each row.
• When one mask is pulled down, oxygen is then
supplied to all masks within the row.
PORTABLE OXYGEN
PORTABLE OXYGEN

• Typically hold 120 litres at 1800 psi
• Normal Mode – 2 litres/min
NUMBER OF MASKS • High Mode – 4 litres/min
• EMER Mode – 10 litres/min
• Seating Capacity > 200 required 10% more
masks to be fitted.
SYSTEMS 6 – FUEL SYSTEMS

USES OF THE FUEL SYSTEM 5 – FEEDERBOX 10 – FUEL / OIL HEAT EXCHANGER

• Engine Fuel • Contains two low pressure, electrically driven • Used to cool the oil and heat the fuel.
• APU Fuel fuel pumps of the centrifugal type. • Warming the fuel helps keep the fuel above it’s
• Trim Tank • Provides an uninterrupted, de-‐aerated, pour point.
• Fuel / Oil Heat Exchangers supply of fuel to the engine driven pumps. o This is the temperature at which it becomes
• Wing Bending Relief • 2 pumps are installed to ensure continuous too viscous if cooled below it.
supply irrespective of attitude.
• Non-‐return valve prevent flow back to the tank
when in extreme attitudes. 11 – MEC / FCU
1 – FUEL TANK
• Connected to the AGB
• Vented to prevent tank deformation and fuel • Contains the HP Fuel Cock
6 – LOW PRESSURE FUEL SHUT OFF VALVE
starvation.

• Normally open
• Closed with activation of the fire handle 12 – P&D VALVE
2 – RECEPTACLES

• Ensures fuel pressure is high enough to allow
• Access to tank for fuelling. 8 – CROSS FEED VALVE proper atomization of the fuel and adjustment of
• Small Aircraft = Gravity (Over-‐Wing) the variable geometry
• Large Aircraft = Pressure (Under-‐Wing) • Normally Closed • Drain function ensure the manifold is drain after
• Used in event of engine failure to ensure fuel is shutdown.
balanced on each side of the aircraft.
3 – BAFFLE PLATES
• Allows the left tank to feed the right engine for
example.
• Prevent fuel surging where the fuel pools on
one side of the tank during turns.
9 – ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP

4 – DRAIN VALVE • High Pressure P umps
• Connected to the AGB
• For removal of water that condenses and
collects at the bottom of the tank.

CALORIFIC VALUE CONTAMINATION FILTRATION

• The amount of heat release by burning 1 kg fuel. • AVTUR is more viscous than AVGAS so water • Mesh installed around LP pump inlets
• Fuel requires a high calorific value. suspension is more likely. • Filters installed after both LP and HP pumps
• Higher value = less fuel required • Water detectors and drain valves required.
FUEL SYSTEM TYPES

FUEL TYPES FUEL SYSTEM ICING INHIBITOR (FCII)
• Gravity (C152)
• Mixing of JET A / JET A1 / AVTAG is permitted. • Used in small aircraft / military aircraft. • Pump-‐Feed (PA28)
• If just using AVTAG, FCU must be adjusted to • Additive is added to the fuel in order to: • Multi-‐Engine Type
account for the lower specific gravity. o Reduce tendency of water in the fuel to o Cross feed mandatory
• Fuelling with AVTAG not permitted with pax on freeze o Fuel transfer optional
board due to the low flash point. o Reduce fungus formation
• Large Jet Fuel System
o Act a lubricant for the HP fuel pump which
is immersed in fuel.
LOW FUEL TEMPERATURES LARGE JET FUEL SYSTEM
TYPES OF LEAKS ETC
• Must be avoided – change of altitude may be
required. LOW PRESSURE PUMPS
• Dripping – Drops at slow rate
• Low temps result in increased viscosity and
• Leaking – Drops at fast rate
formation of wax / paraffin crystals. • Two centrifugal type AC pumps are installed
• Seaping – Uninterrupted flow
in each inner tank and the centre tank.
• Ensures a continuous supply at varying
VAPOUR LOCKS attitudes.
TANK TYPES
• Should the booster pumps fail, the HP pumps
• With a decrease in temperature, a decrease in will still draw fuel but a decrease in altitude or
• Rigid
boiling point occurs. o C152 throttle setting may be required.
• This makes formation of vapour lock more o Small tank installed at wing root o Especially true when using AVTAG due to
likely. its low volatility which has an increased
• Flexible / Bladder Cell
• Pressurisaton of fuel tank and use of fuel chance of vapour lock with LP pump fail
o Helicopters & some commercial aircraft
booster pumps helps prevent this. o Rubber layers ensure self-‐sealing in event
of puncture
• Integrated / Wet Tank
o Fuel is carried in the wing
o Max space with min weight
o Ribs act as b affleplates

APU PUMP SURGE / VENT TANK TOTALISER & FUEL USED

• The APU uses a DC pump to draw its fuel supply • To prevent damage from the movement of fuel • Totaliser indicated total FOB
from one of the tanks. during maneuvers, in the case of over-‐refueling • Fuel used indicator is reset with each engine
and expansion. start and indicates fuel used.
• Fuel that enters the surge tank is transferred
JET EJECTOR PUMP
back to the main tanks via gravity.
VISUAL FUEL MEASUREMENT
• Used to allow for a flow of fuel from the outer to
inner tanks. TANK VENTS • Drip Stick
• Uses the LP booster pump to create suction o Located under the wing
through a venturi, thus drawing the fuel • Fitted to the bottom of the tanks where there is o Suffers from leakage down the stick
through. higher pressure. • Magnetic Drop Stick
o Located under the wing
o Rests on top of a float and does not leak so
FUEL JETTISON (DUMP) is more user friendly.

• Required when MTOW significantly > MLM
• Required to jettison enough fuel in 10 -‐15 min FLOW METER
• After jettison, fuel remaining must be sufficient
to takeoff and climb to 10,000 ft with a 45 • Fuel flows through and impeller motor which
minute reserve. allows for measurement of fuel flow rate.
FUEL GAUGES REFUELING TYPES

• Fuel Volume Types • Open Line / Gravity (Overwing)
o Float Type o No electrics allowed
o Resistance Type • Pressure (Under Wing)
o Both prone to error from variations in o Electrics required
TANK OPERATION
temperature and different attitudes.

• Fuel Weight Types
• Inner tanks used first down to 5000 kgs
o Capacitive Type DEFUELING
• Contents of the trim tank are then transferred to
o Compensates for attitude changes
the inner tank.
• Refueling requires an empty bowser
• Contents of the outer tanks are then transferred
to the inner tank.

REFUELING ZONE

• Extends at least 6m radially from the filling
and venting points.
• Within this zone:
o No Smoking
o GPU as far away as possible
o Filler caps removed after APU start
o Fire extinguishers readily accessible
REFUELING PRECAUTIONS

• No pax on board for AVGAS / Jet B (AVTAG)
• No fuelling:
o Within 30m of radar equipment in test / use
o Within 20nm of TS
o Within 6m of flash equipment
o With overheated brakes
SYSTEMS 7 – ICE PROTECTION

ICING CONDITIONS DE-‐ICING WINDSHIELD HEATING

• Visible moisture, standing water / snow present • Removal of ice • Heated to prevents brittleness and icing.
with a temperature of: • Temperature control prevents overheating
o OAT < 100C (Ground Ops + T/O) • Used on turbo-‐props where continuous anti-‐ which can lead to delamination.
o TAT < 100C (In Flight) icing decreases EPR too much due to HPC
extraction.
• The critical temperature range is +100C to – • On demand use of HPC air is preffered. PROP ANTI-‐ICE
100C as large SCWDs exist at these temps.
• De-‐Icing Boots • Lower part of propeller is electrically heated
o Pneumatically operated to prevent the build up of ice.
ANTI-‐ICING o Small aircraft use a vacuum pump
• Spinner oscillates slightly in order to prevent
o Larger aircraft use HPC air
• Prevention of ice formation ice build up.
o A sequence is used (root boots – tip boots –
elevator boots – rudder boots)
• Electrical Anti-‐Ice o Symmetrical operation minimizes
o Probe & Sensor Heating aerodynamic disturbance INTAKE ICING

• Thermal Anti-‐Ice • Most likely at low forward airspeed with
o Wing Heating, Engine Inlets high RPM.
FLUID TYPES o Intake pressure < ambient pressure
o Air extracted from HPC

o From wing heating, the inside of the wing is
• Type I • Also more likely with TAS > 250 kts
heated.
o Unthickened (low viscosity) o High catch efficiency

o High glycol content
• Fluid Anti-‐Ice
o Usually clear
o DA42 for example
o Mainly de-‐icing rather than anti-‐ice
o Fluid exits through tiny holes in the leading UNDERCARRIAGE ICING
• Type II
edge (weeping wing) and covers the surface
o Thickened (high viscosity)
in a thin layer of anti-‐ice fluid. • Consider cycling undercarriage after takeoff
o Usually straw colour
o Prevents SCDWs from freezing from contaminated runways to remove deposits.
o Additional anti-‐ice properties
o Sprayed onto props via a feed tube • Prevents deposits freezing at altitude with the
• Type IV
lower temperature.
o Same as type II with longer HOT

• Heating may be required in order improve
spray ability in cold temperatures.
• Overheating can result in a gelled formation
that will not shear on takeoff.
SYSTEMS 7 – ICE PROTECTION
RAIN REPLLENT SYSTEM

• Only to be used in rain conditions in conjunction
with the wipers.
ICE DETECTION METHODS

• Spot Lights
o Refract when ice is present

• Vibrating Rod Detectors
o Ice accretion changes oscillation frequency

• Pressure Detectors
o Normally open switch (due air pressure)
that is closed when ice blocks the air intake.

• Hot Rod Detectors
o Visible from the cockpit
o Intentionally ‘attracts icing’ and contains
and heating element

• Rotary Ice Detectors
o Rate of rotation decreases with ice
accretion
COLD SOAKED WING

• Tanks contains very cold fuel after landing
from a flight at high altitudes.
• Moisture in the air can cause hoar frost to form.
• Precipitation can cause clear ice to form.
• Fueling tanks after the last flight of the day to
warm the tank contents can prevent ice forming
overnight.
SYSTEMS 8 – FIRE AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
TRIANGLE OF FIRE ENGINE ZONE CLASSIFICATIONS FIRE EXTINGUISHER OPS

• Fuel + Oxygen + Heat • Zone 1-‐ AGB (Coolest) • Silence Master Caution
• Zone 2 – Surrounds compressor (Hot although • Throttle Lever – Idle
no components to actively support combustion) • HP Cock -‐ Closed
EXTINGUISHERS • Zone 3 – Surrounds combustion chamber o Fuel now removed from triangle
(Hottest zone) • Extinguisher 1 -‐ Discharge
• Type A & C fires most common on aircraft o Oxygen now removed from triangle
• Water and Halon most common on aircraft. • Extinguisher 2 – Discharge if required
FIRE DETECTION o Oxygen now removed from triangle

COMPARTMENT CLASSIFICATIONS • Engines, APU and wheel wells fitted with fire
detectors. SMOKE DETECTORS
• Compartments are classified to indicate fire risk • Circuit tested for continuity before each flight
• Only engine and APU have fire extinguishers • Fitted to cargo and lavatories (places where
• A – Pax Cabin fitted. constant observations not possible)
• B – Avionics • The lavatories use automatic fire extinguishers
• C – Baggage / Cargo • Detector Types in the bins
• D – Cargo (Doesn’t endanger pax) o Resistive
• E – Cargo Aircraft Only o Capactive • Smoke Detector Types
o Systron (Pressure Based) o Labyrinth Seal
o Ionised Radiation
• Dual Loop Logic is used in the resistive and o Photoelectric
capacitive types.
o Requires both loops to indicate overheat
before warning is triggered. INERTIA CRASH SWITCH

• Operates all LPSOVs and fire extinguishers.
FIRE TYPE
A – Solids
B – Liquids C – Electrical
Extinguisher (Grey D – Metals HALON BCF USE
(Black Smoke) (Light Grey)
Smoke)
Halon (BCF) -‐ Green ✓ ✓ ✓ • Non-‐alcoholic liquid to be used afterwards
Dry Chemicals -‐ White ✓ ✓ ✓ • Face masks should be worn during use
Dry Powder / Sand-‐ Blue ✓
CO2 -‐ Black ✓ ✓
Water -‐ Red ✓

SYSTEMS 8 – FIRE AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
E XTINGUISHER
FIRE REQUIREMENTS BREAK-‐IN PANEL

• 7 – 30 Pax = 1 • Areas marked on the fuselage where there are
• 31 – 60 Pax = 2 no hydraulics / electrical lines etc behind.
• 61 – 200 Pax = 3 • Allows entry points for emergency services.
• Every extra 100 pax = +1
• Does not include flight deck requirements
LOCATOR BEACON

• Functions for 48 Hrs
FIRST AID KIT REQUIREMENTS
• Range of 80 miles

• 0 – 99 Pax = 1
• 100 – 199 = 2
• 200 – 299 = 3 PYROTECHNICS

• 300 + = 4
• Flare (red) for use at night
• Smoke (orange) for use during the day
SLIDES • Flare end is marked with a ribbed end

• Required when exit sill height is > 6 ft from
surface
• The upperdeck and overwing exits only function
as slides and cannot be used as rafts.
EVACUATION TIME

• When capacity > 44 seats
• 90 seconds with ½ of exits and emergency
lighting in operation

ATPL Notes - Systems

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ATPL Notes - Systems

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SYSTEMS

1 – AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES & AERODYNAMIC LIMITATIONS

STRESSES TENSILE STRENGTH BEAM MOMENTS

THE FUSELAGE SEMI -­‐ MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE FUSELAGE TYPES

THE WINGS / MAINPLANE TORSION BOX THE TAIL

SANDWICH TYPE CONSTRUCTION HONEYCOMB CONSTRUCTION

WING BENDING ON GROUND AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ATTACHMENT METHODS

DESIGN LIMIT LOAD (DLL) OXIDATION DAMAGE TOLERANT

AIRCRAFT DOORS CREW SAFETY

PRESSURISED RESERVOIR DOUBLE ACTING ACTUATOR GEAR PUMP

HYDRAULIC MOTOR CLOSED CENTRE SYSTEM PRESSURE FILTER

RESTRICTOR VALVE HYDRAULIC FUSE PRESSURE MAINTAING (PRIORITY) VALVE

HYDRAULIC SEALS WORKING PRESSURE OVERHEAT DETECTORS

THERMAL RELIEF VALVES

TAILDRAGGER DESIGN SHOCK ABSORBERS TORQUE LINKS

GROUND LOCKS ACCIDENTAL RETRACTION PREVENTION BOGIE LANDING GEAR

WHEELS BRAKE PURPOSE MULTI DISC BRAKE UNIT ANTI-­‐SKID UNIT

AUTOBRAKE SYSTEM BRAKE FADE PARKING BRAKE

TYRE INFLATION / PRESSURE TYRE DAMAGE

TYPES OF FLYING CONTROLS MASS BALANCE ELECTRICAL FLAPS

POWERED FLYING CONTROLS FAIL SAFE SYSTEMS POSITION INDICATORS

PRESSURE & ALTITUDE TURBO-­‐CHARGER DISADVANTAGES BLEED AIR SYSTEM

PISTON ENGINE SYSTEM HEAT EXCHANGERS

OPERATION BRAKE TURBINE SYSTEM MIX MANIFOLD

CONTINOUS FLOW W/CHEMICAL OXYGEN

FUEL SYSTEM TYPES

FUEL GAUGES REFUELING TYPES

RAIN REPLLENT SYSTEM

ICE DETECTION METHODS

COLD SOAKED WING

TRIANGLE OF FIRE ENGINE ZONE CLASSIFICATIONS FIRE EXTINGUISHER OPS

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THE FUSELAGE SEMI -‐ MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE FUSELAGE TYPES

WHEELS BRAKE PURPOSE MULTI DISC BRAKE UNIT ANTI-‐SKID UNIT

PRESSURE & ALTITUDE TURBO-‐CHARGER DISADVANTAGES BLEED AIR SYSTEM