How to write an Introduction

 The introduction to a paper is a very important section, in that it sets the expectations of
the reader. While there is no one formula for a good introduction, in general, an
introduction to a formal paper of this type should accomplish the following:

An introduction should attract the reader's attention. Magazine and newspaper articles often
accomplish this with brief but interesting anecdotes, questions that pique the reader's curiosity,
something of personal relevance to the reader, or other apt quotations, provocative questions, or
statements. While you shouldn't feel that you have to sensationalize, neither should you assume
that the reader is interested in what you have to say by default. Very often just raising the
interesting issue that your thesis explores is enough to pull your reader in.

An introduction should tell the reader explicitly what the thesis (the point of the paper) is.
After having read the introduction, the reader should have no doubt about what the central point
of your paper is.

An introduction should establish the significance of your point to the reader. You should
convince your audience that it should care about what you have to say, though attention to
relevance and significance is part of constructing a successful thesis.

An introduction can give a preview of how you are going to demonstrate your thesis.
Writers often summarize in a brief list of three or so points how you are going to back up your
thesis, so as to prepare the reader and improve the reader's recognition and retention of those
points.

Here are some things to watch out for in your introduction:

An introduction is not the place to introduce background or factual information. A

common impulse is to start a paper with the story of when a person was born, or with some
historical background. However, unless some brief information is necessary to understand the
terms within or significance of the thesis, save the background for your next paragraph.

An introduction should not be too long. An introduction should be a single paragraph, at least
for the length of papers for this class. A page-long intro is usually too long -- half a page or less
is good. If your opening anecdote is a long one, you don't have to finish it in the introduction --
just introduce enough of it to get the reader's attention and establish the significance of your
thesis. You can finish it in the body of the paper. (In fact, such a "teaser" is a common device of
newspaper feature writers.)

Don't start your introduction with a dictionary definition. We're not interested in how
Webster's defines "Postmodernism." We are interested in YOUR take on it.

Don't start out with a grand generalization. The cliche of the "pyramid form" introduction
often leads to uninteresting sentences that begin with "Since the beginning of time..." or
"Throughout history...". Showing the significance of your thesis does not mean that you have to
demonstrate its importance in the history of art or tie it to some universal observation.

Your second paragraph will often connect the opening anecdote or statement to the rest of the
paper, providing a transition from your generalized introduction to your detailed look at your
first point. It is also a common technique to refer back to your opening in your conclusion,
providing a satisfying closure to the paper.

Any introduction must contain the following:

 Brief, relevant background information and/or other contextualising material

 An essay map
 A thesis statement
 Your point of view
Brief, relevant background information

Providing background information or other contextualising material shows how your topic fits
into a broader framework, and what approach you are taking. By doing this, you can point your
readers in the direction you want them to go; you can also show them why the topic is
significant.

‘Brief’ and ‘relevant’ are the important words. Don’t give your reader too much context— give
just enough (often only a couple of sentences is ample for a 1500-2000 word assignment) to
place the key issue of your assignment in its context.

In the introduction above, a brief background of the topic is provided in the first two sentences.

Over the past twenty five years, since Australia embraced multiculturalism as a policy,
issues of intercultural communication have become more and more prominent in the
workplace. However, until relatively recently, little had been written on these issues, and
even now, many organisational managers have no training or knowledge of how to deal
with communication problems, even though most workplaces are staffed by people of
diverse cultures.

These two sentences briefly put the focus of the assignment within its historical context, and
show the reader why there is a problem. It is not necessary to give more background information
in the introduction to a short essay.

Essay map

The essay map gives the scope and direction of your paper. In one sense, the whole introduction
is an essay map, since the introduction should serve as a guide to navigating the written
assignment. However, it is also important to show what specific areas your writing will cover.

The example above continues:

Particular problem areas include the difficulties that some non-English speakers have in
understanding safety instructions (figures produced by the ABS (1997) show that migrant
workers have a higher incidence of accidents at the workplace); an ignorance of the different
forms of non-verbal communication used by other cultures (for example it is considered impolite
in some societies for an employee to look directly at his or her employer), which can lead to
misunderstandings and unpleasantness; and the lack of knowledge about differing expectations.

In this way, the introduction has provided a map to the essay, since the essay is going to cover
these topics in detail.

The thesis statement

The thesis statement is one sentence (or more if the assignment is long and complex) which
explicitly states the focus and direction of the writing.

In a, the thesis statement is often separated from the rest of the introduction under the heading
Aim (or Purpose) of the Report.

It is usual to put the thesis statement at the end of the introduction, but it can sometimes be
placed at the beginning. Don’t put it in the middle of the introduction.

The thesis statement often begins with expressions like: ‘This report examines... ’ ‘This essay
will discuss...’ ‘This article demonstrates...’. We recommend that you adopt this strategy,
especially if you are an inexperienced writer. That way, you won’t forget to put the thesis
statement into your introduction, and your reader has a clear idea of what the focus will be.

The introduction example given above continues:

Based on interviews with managers and staff in six organizations (public and private), this
report examines these three problem areas, and shows that many of the difficulties faced by
 both natives and migrants in the workforce are caused by a lack of awareness of, and
training in, intercultural communication.

This sentence tells the reader exactly what to expect in the essay, as well as showing how you
have gathered your information and what conclusion you will come to.

You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider
writing the introductory section(s) after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than
before.

Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something
sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an
important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You should
draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper.

The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite
those who had the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent
and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary (your work,
of course.)

What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper? 

1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper
was written. Do not repeat the abstract. 
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and
significance of the question you are trying to address. 
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient
references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated
understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s).  All cited work should be
directly relevent to the goals of the thesis.  This is not a place to summarize everything
you have ever read on a subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included. 
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead. 
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new
stuff") begins? 

What are the typical ‘ingredients’ of an essay introduction? 

Trzeciak and Mackay (1994) have identified a number of ‘ingredients’ of an introduction. It

will not always be necessary or desirable to include all of them, but they will generally be used
in some combination or other, in order to introduce an academic argument.

 a statement of the importance of the subject

 mention of previous work on the subject
 a justification for dealing with the subject
 a statement of your objectives
 a statement of the limitations of the work
 a mention of some of the differing viewpoints on the subject
 a definition of the topic being discussed

Step 1

Understand the purpose of the introduction paragraph. The introductory paragraph of an essay
allows you to give your readers general information about your topic. This general information
will lead into the specific point you want to make in your paper, which is known as the thesis
statement.
Step 2

Use techniques in your introduction to attract the audience's attention. There are many options
for capturing the interest of your reader in the introductory paragraph. Share an anecdote (a
personalized story), find a relevant quotation or make a controversial and surprising statement
about the topic. Be creative in order to engage your audience.

Step 3

Understand the purpose of a thesis statement. A thesis statement appears at the end of the
introductory paragraph. It is a specific, one-sentence summary of the topic for your paper and
your point of view about that topic. The body of your paper will work to support the thesis
statement. This sentence creates a focus for your paper, so that you do not add any unnecessary
information. Also, the thesis offers the reader concise information on the point of view of the
complete essay.

Step 4

Create a thesis statement that is narrow and concise. One way to create a thesis statement is to
think of a question your topic raises and then create a sentence that answers that question. For
example, if your topic for literature class is the Modernist movement, you could turn the topic
into a question: How does the Modernist movement continue to influence 21st century authors?
Develop a one-sentence answer to that question, and this can be the basis for a thesis statement.
Be aware that your thesis statement must be narrow enough that you can answer the question in
the assigned length of the paper.

Step 5

Edit your introduction and thesis as you write. Because ideas develop, change, and grow as you
work with them, keep returning to your introductory paragraph and thesis. Edit them as you write
your essay. By the end of your paper, be certain that the content of your introduction and thesis
statement matches the overall message of your essay.

How long should the introduction be?

A useful rule of thumb is: an introduction should be no shorter than one-twelfth and no longer
than one-tenth of the total assignment. Thus a 2000-word essay would have an introduction
somewhere between 160 and 200 words; a 3500-word report between 290 and 350 words.

2. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research process begins with a problem which is perceived difficulty, a feeling of
discomfort with the things are, or a discrepancy between. . .
What should be and what is. . .
According to Ardales (1993) a problem is researchable when:
1. There is no known answer or solution to it such that a gap in knowledge exists;
2. There are possible solutions, the effectivity of which is untested or unknown yet;
3. There are answers or solutions, the possible result of which may seem or may be
factually contradictory;
4. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the undesirable condition;
and
5. When the existence of a phenomena requires explanation.
A good research problem should be SMART.
Specific . the problem should be specifically stated.
Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments in collecting data.
Achievable. The data are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive at
precise results.
Realistic. Real results are not manipulated.
 Time – bounded. Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter
completion of the activity the better.

The following criteria are useful in judging a research problem:

1.) A problem should be of great interest to the researcher. To have met this important
criterion, is to have already “won half of battle”. With much interest on the topic, the
researcher is motivated and determined to work on it until its completion.
2.) A problem should be relevant and useful to a specific group of people. The knowledge
that the result of ones work will be of much use to a group of people and provides the
researcher an input or drive with which to pursue the problem until solution will be discover
or known.
3.) A good problem is novel; it possesses the element of newness or freshness. This implies
doing a study on topics which have been over studied, and pursuing those which were not
subjected to many investigations, or if were not thoroughly studied.
4.) A problem should be well-defined or specified. Unless the researcher has all the time,
money and ability to cover all aspects of social problems, he is expected to set the scope or
limits of his study.
5.) A problem should be measurable. If the variables involved in the problem do not allow
measurement, the researcher will have an impossible task of reporting the results or findings
of his study.

Sources of the Problem

It is said that “Research was born out of man’s problems and man’s problem demands
research.”(Good & Scates, 1972)

The following are sources of the problems:

1.)Personal Experience. What are required of him are awareness and

sensitiveness to the prevailing conditions of his time and place. A sensitive person
can easily discern the difficulties or abnormalities that affect not only him but others
as well.

2.)Symposia , dialogues or Ordinary Meetings. In any of these activities, it is

likely that problems will just crop up or be brought to the attention of participants.
What the researcher needs to do is to formulate the statement of the problem into
one which satisfactorily meets the requirements of a good research problem.

3.) Journals, books, theses or dissertation, and the mass media. In these
materials are issues or concerns which require scientific investigation. Authors of
these materials usually and explicitly recommend topics or problems for investigators
to look into.

4.) Theories. A theory is tentative or hypothesized statement or relationship of things.

It usually presents generalizations and principles which the results of a study may
validate or reject.

Justifying the Research Problem

There are various ways of presenting the researchers justification for his particular study.
It would be to his advantage to present all supporting factors so as to convince and to get the
approval of the screening committee. The following guide questions will be helpful:

1.) Is the problem a current and timely one?

2.) Is it pervasive or independent?
3.) Does it affect a special group of people such as fish processors, fish farmers and
managers?
4.) Does it relate to on-going programs such as aquaculture nutrition, coastal resource
management, etc.?
 5.) Does it relate to broad social, economic, and health issues, such as unemployment,
mismatch of needed manpower, etc.?
6.) Who else concerned about the problem- top government officials or other
professionals?
7.) What are its direct and indirect, short- and long-ranged contributions, to the welfare
of a group of people or to the whole society?

The researcher should review his answers to these questions and arrange them into
paragraphs that justify the importance of the research problem.

Statement of the Problem

The following are the guidelines in formulating the statements of the problem:

1.) It must be formulated first before conducting the research.

2.) It must be stated in interrogative form.
3.) It must be clear and has only one meaning.
4.) It is researchable apart from the other questions.
5.) It must be based upon known facts and phenomena.
6.) Answers to each question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other specific
questions.
7.) Answers to each question must contribute to the development of the research
problems.
8.) Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.
9.) The number of questions should be enough to cover the development problem or
study.

E.g. “The Aquaculture Industry: Its Status and Implication to Fishery Education in
Sultan Kudarat,” the following statement of the problem were presented;

Examples 1) To what extent is productivity related to production characteristics such as:

a. socio-economic status of aquaculturists;

b. level of educational technology:
c. level of intensification; and
d. farm size
2.) What fishery education programs are awaited by aquaculturists in:
a. instruction;
b. research; and
c. extension services?
“Problems met by Science and Mathematics Teachers in Department of Education
(DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 – 2010”
1. what are the problems met by Science and Mathematics Teachers in DEPED in SY
2004 – 2009 in relation to :
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor

Hypothesis
Hypothesis is an educated or intelligent guess or prediction about the existence, attribute
or relationship between variables (characteristics or phenomena) covered by a study. It is
described as educated or intelligent since it has been formulated on the basis of well- thought of
objectives and a theoretical or conceptual framework. The foundations of which require critical
reviews of literature and studies related to the subject under study. The phenomena, or the
aspects of it, which are the focus of guess or predictions, may be prevailing at the time the study
is to be conducted, have occurred, or may still occur.
Types of Hypothesis:
1.) Null Hypothesis. It is a denial of an existence, as attribute, a relationship, a difference
or an effect. As such, it is stated in the negative form of statement.
2.) Alternative hypothesis. If affirms the existence of a phenomenon, that this group of
people has such and such characteristics. E.g. 1. There is a relationship between
educational attainment and level of skilled-manpower. 2. There is a significant
difference between growth and survival rates of milkfish at different stocking ratios.
In practice, the null hypothesis is popular since, with its use, errors in accepting
or rejecting the hypothesis can be easily avoided. Moreover, the null hypothesis is
easier to reject that the alternative hypothesis when the statistical measure is applied
in testing the existence of difference or relationship. However, the recent trend is
towards the use of alternative hypothesis. The basic argument for it is that, stated in
the positive form of a statement, it provides more motivation to carry out the study.
Hypothesis serves the following functions:
1.) They provide guide and direction to the research.
2.) They indicate the major independent and dependent variables being considered.
3.) They suggest the type of data that must be collected.
4.) They also suggest the type of analysis that must be made.
5.) They indicate the type of statistical measures, appropriate to various tests to be
conducted.
Example of hypothesis is based on a statement of the problem is :
There is no significant relationship between productivity and:
a. socio-economic status of aquaculturists;
b. level of educational technology;
c. level of intensification; and
d. farm size
Characteristics of a good hypothesis:
1.) It be should be reasonable in that they offshoots or results of critical thought tentative
judgment or explanation of phenomenon. They have been formulated with valid
basis.
2.) It should be testable in that use of statistical tools, it would be known whether there is
relationship or difference between two or more variables, or whether a variable has
an influence or effect on another.
3.) It should conform to the findings of previous studies. If a related study disclosed that
Filipinos in general favor pork tocino over fish tocino, it would be without any basis to
predict that Aklanos or Ilongos like eat fish tocino.
Assumptions

Assumptions are statements of facts related to the research problem which are
presumed to be true on the basis of observations and experience although not actually verified.
They are stated so as to provide foundation from which the study will proceed, and an additional
basis for validation of variables of interest to the study. As the term suggests, assumptions do
not require testing or confirmation.

Not all investigations, however, have a section on assumptions. This is so because, in

some assumptions are integrated in the introductory portion of the report where the researcher
discusses the background of the problem being investigated.
The following are examples of assumptions which investigators have used in their study:
1.) People have certain levels of acceptability toward the finished products.
2.) There are several factors that contribute to fast growth and survival rates of fish in
ponds.
 Example of assumption based on statement of the problem is: All respondents have
availed the fishery education progress in:
a. Instruction;
b. Research; and
c. Extension

The Theoretical and the Conceptual Frameworks

The theoretical and the conceptual frameworks provide explicit explanations why the
problems under study exist by showing how the variables involved in the problem are related to
each other. The theoretical framework makes use of theories in explaining why a certain
phenomenon, the subject of the study, occurred. Basically, a theory is a set of concepts and
their relations which explains, predicts and interprets how a particular phenomenon exists and
operates. The theoretical framework uses abstract concepts, although in some instance, it is a
combination of abstract and well-defined concepts, but more of the former. A research may
adapt existing theories on which to anchor or link his particular study. In cases where no
applicable theory exists, the researcher is compelled to formulate one. This task is facilitated by
reviewing related literature and studies.
The conceptual framework has the same function as the theoretical framework. The
difference lies in the types of concepts which they use. While the theoretical framework makes
use of abstract concepts, the conceptual framework utilizes specific or well-defined ones which
are called constructs. If the researcher has in his study theoretical as well as conceptual
framework, he should see to it that the conceptual level should have been devised from abstract
concepts given in the theoretical level. Some researchers, however, utilize either one of the two.
More often than not, researchers provide a schematic diagram of the relationship of the
variables mentioned in their theoretical or conceptual framework. Such pictorial illustration
makes the relations under study more vivid providing the researcher directions as basis data
analysis. The following illustration is a conceptual paradigm.

Conceptual Paradigm

Fishery Education Aquaculture Industry

Production Characteristics
Instruction
SES of Aqua culturists

Level of Educational
Productivity
Technology

Research Level of Intensification

Farm Size
Income for
Extension Services Aquaculture
Availment
Marketing
Number of years of
availment

Level of adoption of
extension services
Distribution
The explanation of the paradigm:

This study was premised on the concept that productivity is influenced by production
characteristics such as socio- economic status of aquaculturists, level of educational
technology, level of intensification and farm size. Likewise, it theorized that productivity is
influenced by instruction and research in terms of the number of fishery graduates employed in
the aquaculture industry and the researches conducted by the student- trainees which are
relevant to the need of the community. It was theorized further that productivity is influenced by
the adoption of extension services as indicated by availment of extension services, number of
years of availment of extension service, and level of adoption of extension delivery service.
Moreover, it was hypothesized that income derived from aquaculture is dependent on the levels
of productivity.

The Variable

A variable refers to a “characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties, “( Sevilla et al.,1992). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and
femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with the size, height, weight
and income. The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the
motivating factors of the research undertaking, (Andales,1992).

Major types of Variables:

1. Independent Variable. This is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, which
is the presumed effect in a relational study. This is the stimulus variable which is
chosen by the researcher to determine the relationship to an observed phenomenon.
2. Dependent variable. This is the focus of the investigation which behavior or status
is influenced by the independent variable. This is the response variable which is
observed and measured to determine the effect of the impendent variable.

The intervening variable, as the term suggests, come between the independent and
the dependent variables. In a way, it is the immediate independent variable of the dependent
variable, and also the immediate dependent variable of the independent variable. It either
strengthens or weakness the influence or effect of the independent on the dependent variable.
Consider example 1 given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards
repayment is negative, loan repayment would be low; whereas, if the attitude towards
repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be high.

Example 1
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable
Farm Attitude towards Loan Repayment
Production Repayment

Example 2
Educational Age, Sex, Civil Performance
qualifications status, experiences,
attitudes towards
work, Education

Scope and Limitations

Scope and limitations comprise one important section of a research report. The scope
defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the area or locality and subjects or
population covered the duration or period of the study, and the research issues or concerns to
which the investigation is focused.
The limitations are statements which alert the reader of the research report to certain
constraints over which the researcher has no control. Such factors or constraints have direct
bearings on the result of the study such that, without them, the study would be more
encompassing, definitive or conclusive. Stating the study limitations not only provides extra
credence to the study but provides the reader caution not expect beyond what the study can
and promises to deliver, notwithstanding certain constraints.
Examples: The study covers all the aquaculturists in the three (3) coastal municipalities
of the province of Sultan Kudarat. The study focused on the production characteristics as
described by socio- economic profile of the respondents level of educational technology, level of
intensification, and farm size; fishpond practices; productivity and income derived from the
aquaculture industry; marketing characteristics; channels of distribution; fishery education
programs; and relationship of productivity to characteristics; extension service programs and
income derived from the aquaculture industry (Scope).
The study would be more comprehensive, meaningful and far- reaching if it covers more
areas including other municipalities, which will provide basis for comparison. This, however,
would mean more time, money and manpower, which the researcher does not have.
( (Limitation).
Significance of the Study
It is this where the researcher expresses his persuasions about the value of the study so
as to get approval of the screening and approving committee and the support of the funding
institution. The researcher shall state the following significant contributions that his study will
make:
1.) Contribution to the accumulation of knowledge, or to filling up a knowledge gap;
2.) Contribution to building, validating or refining prevailing theories;
3.) Contribution to meeting a pressing need of a specific group like solving a
problem or improving certain conditions;
4.) Contribution to refining concepts, improving research instrumentation and
methodologies; and
5.) Contribution to meeting the concerns or priorities of funding institution like
improved income, health, interrelations, and the like

Definition of Terms
This section facilitates understanding of the problem investigated for. The key concepts
are defined according to how they are used in a particular study.
There are two functions which the definition of terms serves as follows:
1.) It establishes the rules and procedures the investigator will use to measure variables.
2.) It provides unambiguous meaning to terms that otherwise can be interpreted in
different ways.
There are two major types of definitions:
1.) Conceptual definition. This is universal in that it is the meaning understood by
people. It is distract and most general in nature. The usual source of the
conceptual definition is the dictionary, which is the reference book of everyday
language.
2.) Operational definition. It is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a
particular study.
Unlike the conceptual definition, it is concentrate in that it is subject to measurement.
The usual practice when using both types of definition is to state first the conceptual, followed
by the operational.