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Biological theories of crime versus psychological theories of crime —

Comparison and evaluation of their contributions to our understanding of
crime and/or criminal justice

Research · January 2017

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Biological theories of crime versus psychological theories of

crime — Comparison and evaluation of their contributions
to our understanding of crime and/or criminal justice

Degree: MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice

Academic year: 2017-2018

Student: Dorine Walter

Word count: 3,284 words

Title and course code: Analysing Crime (SGM301)

Instructor: Dr. Jonathan Ilan

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Contents

Introduction 3
Chapter 1: Biological theories of crime 4
Lombroso’s Positivist Theory 4
Gall and the concept of Phrenology 6
Sheldon’s Constitutional Theory of the Body 7
Chapter 2: Psychological theories of crime 9
Psychodynamic Theory 9
Theory of Crime and Personality 11
Behaviorist Theory 12
Chapter 3: Evaluation and comparison 14
Similarities between the theories 14
Differences between the theories 15
Chapter 4: Discussion 17
Criticism 17
Contributions to the field 18
Further critical thinking 19
Bibliography 21

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Introduction

Crime is not as simple as we think it is. It is a very complex phenomenon that changes across

time and culture. How people deal with crime, how they think about crime and how they punish

crime is different according to one another. That is where criminological theories come into play.

« A good theory is said to provide a foundational lens through which to interpret and understand the

manifestation of a behavior. In the field of criminology, the theoretical lens has been primarily

guided by concepts germane to the fields of sociology, psychology, and biology, and the behavior to

be explained is typically behavior that violates the codified laws of our society (i.e., crime and

delinquency). » (Miller, 2009).

Some theories have provided important insights on how crime is perceived and how it can be

treated, and have been very useful for scholars and researchers. However, the important and yet

problematical aspect of all criminological theories is that there is no right or wrong answer. No

single theory can provide a thorough explanation on crime and criminal behavior, neither on their

variations and evolution. So, why is theoretical thinking commonly analyzed and used in our

everyday life and why is it so important to take advantage of it? In fact, what modern criminologists

do is that they combine various aspects of psychology, sociology, anthropology and biology to work

on their understanding of crime and criminal behavior.

The purpose of this essay is firstly, to present the goals and the influence of two

criminological theories that have had an impact in the field. Secondly, the essay will analyze the

differences between the two theories as well as their similarities, and finally, a discussion for further

critical thinking, by analyzing the theories’ weaknesses but also their contributions to the criminal

justice system and to the society at large.

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Chapter 1: Biological theories of crime

« The basic tenet of biological theories in criminology holds that crime is caused by a genetic

or physical defect, and treatment is only effective in the reduction of aggression » (Schmalleger,

2007). Indeed, biological theories assume that the people who commit crimes are ‘born criminals’

and their biological features differ from non-criminals. This difference, considered as an inferiority,

leads to criminal activity. Biological theories are categorized with a paradigm called positivism,

which contrasts with classicism. Unlike the classical thought, developed during the Age of

Enlightenment in the 1600s, which asserts that humans operated on a basis of rational thought and

free will, guided by the calculation of risks and rewards over the course of their actions (Beccaria,

1764), positivist theories believe that criminals are born as such, it is their nature and not nurture

that results in criminal tendency.

This chapter will focus on three influential and infamous biological theories that present

similarities in the way they had been studied, scientifically and biologically wise, drawing up

different conclusions according to the area of study.

Lombroso’s Positivist Theory

The most famous positive criminologist is Cesare Lombroso. In the mid-1800s, he started to

develop an interest in studying cadavers to come up with conclusion about physiological traits for

criminal behavior explanation, but focusing on the criminal rather than on the crime. Inspired by

Charles Darwin’s theory on evolution and on the notion of atavism (the tendency to revet to

ancestral type, an evolutionary throwback), he published Criminal Man in 1876, with his beliefs

that criminals were not as evolved as normal people, and thus, crime was the result of biological

differences between them. Indeed, he believed that criminality was inherited and further developed

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Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

a theory of deviance in which a person’s bodily constitution indicates whether he is a born criminal,

considered as a primitive man, by his physique, mental capabilities and instincts (Crossman, 2017).

Atavism was the main aspect of Lombroso’s criminological theory, but he went further on

developing the concept of degeneration and introduced the term born criminal. This coined term

became a revolutionary aspect of positivism and on the views of a criminal’s characteristics and

also on the criminal justice system. The notion of degeneration started to become a powerful

framework in studying mental disorders, believed to be a process of pathological decay affecting

the individual AND the society at large (Beccalossi, 2010). Lombroso considered degeneration as a

total « arrest in human development » and in the second half of the 19th century, a lot of physicians

used the concept to explain criminality and pathology.

After examining skulls and physical anomalies using cadavers but also living subjects, he

came up with a wide range of features and their meanings and reported details on everything that

composes human body, from height to shape of noses, ears, feet, etc. (Beccalossi, 2010). Among all

the traits being predictive to criminal behavior, he found; index finger length, fleshy cheeks, large

teeth, highly defined cheek bones, crooked nose, large lips, close eyes and different eyes colors.

Lombroso also focused on the criminal woman, providing important differences between the

genders and asserting that prostitution was the most typical form of crime committed by women,

and when they were not criminals, they were meant to be dependent on the father of their children,

lacking autonomy and active sexuality. Lombroso considered women as intellectually inferior to

men and being ‘big children’ (Lombroso & Ferrerro, 1895). Moreover, the female offender was

characterized as masculine, compared to the normal woman (Klein, 1973). Prostitutes presented the

same physical characteristics such as narrow foreheads, prominent cheekbones, short arms,

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
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excessive weight and psychological characteristics such as lack of modesty, tendency to vice,

idleness and vanity, and obsession with alcohol and orgies (Beccalossi, 2010).

Figure 1. Cesare Lombroso’s Museum of Criminal Anthropology via Pietro Giuria 15, Torino

Gall and the concept of Phrenology

Franz Joseph Gall, a German anatomist and physician, was also a key figure in developing

theories about human behavior through the study of the brain. He originated the pseudoscientific

practice called phrenology, and also used by Lombroso. Phrenology comes from the Greek words

phren (mind) and logos (knowledge). The principles of phrenology are based on the belief that the

brain is the organ of the mind and that the examination of the human skull shape can be relevant to

study an individual’s intellect and personality.

As a result of his research, Gall discovered some interesting facts about how the skull can tell

about an individual’s motivations, thoughts and behavior; he ascertained that all intellectual and

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
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moral faculties were innate, brain was the driving force of people’s different propensities and the

brain is composed of different organs, and each represents a faculty (Young, 1970) (see figure 2).

Figure 2. Physiognomic/phrenologic head and representation of human faculties

Source

Sheldon’s Constitutional Theory of the Body

The constitutional theory, or somatotype theory (the set of generalized body types), was first

introduced in the 1940s by William H. Sheldon, an American psychologist and physician, convinced

that psychological makeup of humans had biological foundations. He created a classification

associating psychology and physiology, according to three body types, and came up with the

conclusion that body types have corresponding personalities:

• Endomorphs are physically larger, short and plump. Their matching personality is relaxed,

tolerant, loving, calm and peaceful.

• Mesomorphs tend to be muscular and heavy. Thus, they tend to be active, vigorous and assertive.

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

• Ectomorphs are tall and thin. Therefore, their personality is close to being fragile, quiet, sensitive

and introverted.

Later on, Sheldon used this classification as a way to explain deviant behavior, believing that

delinquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy. Indeed, he believed that

mesomorphs’s characteristics stated before caused criminal behavior and delinquency.

Figure 3. Sheldon’s comparison of body types

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Chapter 2: Psychological theories of crime

Psychological theories of crime present similar characteristics as the biological ones, as well

as differences, that this essay will analyze in the next chapter. Psychological theories focus on the

individual’s personality and behavior. Over the years, they have been influential in shaping society’s

thoughts about crime and criminal justice policies. The first pioneer, Charles Goring (1870–1919),

discovered a relationship between crime and flawed intelligence, examining 3,000 convicts in

England. He found no physical differences between noncriminals and criminals; he did find that

criminals are more likely to be insane, unintelligent, and to exhibit poor social behavior.

There are so many psychological theories and explanations of criminal activity and behavior.

This chapter therefore focuses on how human personality and behavior can determine and predict

criminal activity, using several examples and three infamous psychological theories as supports and

examples of research; the psychodynamic theory of Freud, Eysenck’s theory of personality and

Skinner’s behaviorist theory.

Psychodynamic Theory

The terms psychoanalysis and psychodynamics are often confused, even though they both

explain the same dynamics. Psychoanalysis comes from both theory and practice, founded by

Sigmund Freud (1890-1930), and is the study of the unconscious mind. In other words, Freud

believed that the human mind was like an iceberg, a part from the surface is visible, but the part that

is underwater, is not, and that is the unconscious ideas and thoughts. He believed that this

unconscious mind consisted of three components: the id, the ego and the superego.

• The id is the instinctive and primitive component of personality. It consists of inherited

components present at birth, Eros (which is the libido) and Thanatos (the aggressive instinct).

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• The ego is « that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external

world » (Freud, 1923). In other words, the ego is the decision-making of the personality and

operates realistically, in contrary to the id, which is impulsive. Freud assumed that « the ego is

like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse ».

• The superego incorporates all the values and behaviors learned from the parents and society as a

whole. Its goal is to control the id’s impulses, such as aggression and sex, and make the ego turn

to moralistic instead of realistic goals.

At large, the basic assumptions of Freud’s psychodynamic theory lies on the beliefs that the

major causes of behavior have their origin in the unconscious part of the mind, each behavior has a

cause and a reason (concept called the psychic determinism). Behavior and thoughts are rooted in

childhood experience and the different parts present in the unconscious mind are in constant

struggle (McLeod, 2007).

Figure 4. Basic components of the human mind according to Freud’s psychodynamic theory

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
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Theory of Crime and Personality

Hans J. Eysenck developed a psychological theory that linked personality to criminality.

According to him, human personality can be viewed in three dimensions; he used a method called

‘factor analysis’, which reduces behavior to factors grouped together under separate headings, that

he calls dimensions (McLeod, 2007). Each of the factors is a bipolar dimension, meaning that each

has a direct opposite:

• Psychoticism vs. self-control: Individuals with high psychoticism are considered aggressive,

egocentric, cold and impulsive. On the contrary, those with low psychoticism tend to be warm,

peaceful and empathetic.

• Extroversion vs. introversion: People with high extroversion are lively and sociable, whereas

people with high introversion are reserved and quiet.

• Neuroticism vs. emotional stability: Neuroticism is linked with traits such as low self-esteem,

anxiety, shyness and emotionality. People with emotional stability are care-free and even-

tempered.

According to Eysenck, personality is linked to criminal behavior via socialization processes.

He viewed criminal behavior as developmentally immature. The process of socialization is

accomplished through conditioning; when children act immaturely, they get punished.

Consequently, they come to associate anxiety with antisocial behavior. Where this process is

successful, even thinking about behaving antisocially produces anxiety, so the person avoids doing

it (Sammons, 2002). Moreover Eysenck (1964) reported that delinquents have lower cortical arousal

levels and less ability to be conditioned by social norms. Those traits can result in high extraversion

and neuroticism (Moore, 2011).

Therefore, based on Eysenck’s personality trait theory, the basic hypothetical relationships

underlying his theory are firstly, that criminals and psychopaths exhibit distinctive personality traits
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or behavior patterns, secondly, there is a genetic basis for these personality traits and finally, the

formation of conscience, which functions to restrain deviant behavior patterns, may be faulty on

psychophysiological grounds, resulting in criminal and psychopathic behavior (Goldsmith, 1982).

Figure 5. Eysenck Personality Wheel

Behaviorist Theory

Later theories developed the study of behavioral psychology, supporting the idea that human

behavior is developed through learning experiences, as originating in the work of B. F. Skinner’s

operant conditioning theory. Skinner’s view is that human behavior is the product of its

consequences; rewards and punishments. Criminal behavior is acquired/retained if people

experience rewards, and abandoned if they experience punishments. Subsequent behavior is viewed

as a consequence of past responses to behavior (Skinner, 1953). Specifically, someone repeats a

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behavior based on what happened when the behavior in question appeared in the past; for instance,

a child who is obedient will receive a treat for being good.

Skinner identified three types of responses that can follow behavior:

• Neutral operants: Responses from the environment, they don’t increase or decrease the

probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being

repeated.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being

repeated. Punishment is meant to weaken behavior.

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Dorine Walter City, University of London Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Student Number: 170029156 MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice Academic Year: 2017-2018

Chapter 3: Evaluation and comparison

Now that this essay presented psychological and biological explanations of crime, a

comparison is necessary to better understand their purposes. They both take a variety of forms and

include a wide range of similar factors that need to be taken into account. However, even though

they both try to explain criminal activity and behavior, they also present interesting differences

which will be analyzed in this chapter.

Similarities between the theories

The early bases for psychology were biological and physical. For instance, psychiatry focuses

on mental disorders and tries to find physiological bases for abnormal behavior.

Positivism discussed in the first chapter also has psychological roots, such as psychological

positivism, suggesting that people commit crime because of internal psychological factors over

which they have little control, driving them to become criminals. However, the major difference

between biological positivism and psychological positivism still is that the latter sees criminals as

having internal psychological elements, whereas biological positivism claims that criminals are

born criminal.

According to Eysenck, there is a biological basis of personality; personality types result from

differences in central nervous system functioning. Another major similarity is that in most

contemporary theories, psychological factors are combined with biological and social factors, in

order to explain crime more comprehensively.

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Differences between the theories

Now that similarities between the theories have been reviewed, let’s focus on the differences.

Unlike the biological explanation, the psychological orientation is individualistic, viewing problems

arising out of early life experiences and trying to treat the individual having problems, instead of

focusing on who will become deviant. The main differences are that biological approaches focus on

nature (genes), using brain scans, twin studies, while psychological/behaviorist approaches focus on

nurture (environment), using experiments and research. Moreover, psychological theories differ

from biological ones, which are scientific and nomothetic (measures observed on a relatively large

sample with a general outlook). Psychology uses case studies, clinical interviews whereas biology

uses brain scans and twin studies for example. Below is an explanatory table highlighting

differences (but also some similarities) between the theories.


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Historical period
Leading figures
Purpose
Image of human nature
Image of criminals
Definition of crime
Focus of response to crime
Purpose of punishment
Figure 6. Psychological and biological theories of crime characteristics
Source: Dr. Jonathan Ilan’s Analysing Crime class on early positivism and crime control
City, University of London
MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice
Psychological view
19th century
Sigmund Freud, Hans Eysenck, B.
F. Skinner
To examine the association among
personality, intelligence, learning
and criminal behavior
Humans possess psychological
features (either hidden or showed)
that make them do or not do things
Criminals are mentally different
form non-criminals (either with
low intelligence, insanity or brain
deficient)
Criminality is a natural and normal
choice with whom the people
enhance pleasure or reduce pain
(Eysenck)
Focus on offender, but on his/her
behavior and psychological
features
In some cases, self-punishing
behavior is driven by and a
manifestation of guilt
Analysing Crime (SGM301)
Academic Year: 2017-2018
Biological view
19th century age of reason, mid-
industrial revolution
Cesare Lombroso, Raffael
Garofalo, Enrico Ferri, William H.
Sheldon, Franz Joseph Gall
To apply the scientific method to
the study of crime and criminality
Humans are driven, behavior is
determined by psychological,
biological, anthropological or
social forces that constrain
rationality and free will
Criminals are different from non-
criminals, they commit crimes
because they are inferior in some
way (usually physically)
Based on universal human
abhorrence; definition of crime
limited to inherently evil (mala in
se) acts
Focus on offender, not offense -
individualization of social reaction
to crime (correction)
Social defense: punishment to be
applied differently to different
offenders based on relevant
differences and should be
rehabilitative
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Chapter 4: Discussion

This chapter will review and analyze the two theories deeper, by trying to explain why they

were subject to criticism, but also how they contributed to a variety of fields and how they

improved research methods and law enforcement tactics.

Criticism

Every infamous theory has been criticized in a way or another, and tested for reliability. Even

though both theories have been some useful help for science, psychology and the study of crime,

their methods have been criticized by professionals.

French criminologists who came after Lombroso believed that Italians were mistaking

atavism; the born criminal « established a determinism that deprived men from their freedom,

specially their freedom of choice, or freewill » (Perez, 386). They also criticized Lombroso’s use of

the word criminal referring to people who had been convicted or waiting to be convicted, assuming

that anyone convicted was actually a criminal. Moreover, phrenology is not considered as a

legitimate science today.

Sheldon’s theory on body types was also criticized on the grounds that his samples were not

representative enough, and he mistook correlation for causation (Bernard, 2003). Another criticism

of his work was the lack of completeness of application; no consideration of age, or socio-economic

environment and culture (Kenneth & Matthew, 2013).

As a whole, some aspect of biological approaches are considered flawed because they tend to

focus too much on the nature side of nature/nurture construction, arguing that behavior is caused by

genetics and hormones. For instance, schizophrenia is genetic (Gottesman, 1991), however twin

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studies (Galton, 1869) show that it is not entirely genetic and that the environment plays a great role

as well. A lot of biological theories also forget the fact that each individual is unique.

Psychological studies are also subject to criticism. The psychodynamic approach of Freud is

considered unscientific in analyzing human behavior and impossible to be empirically investigated

(McLeod, 2007). Some psychologists also criticize the fact that it over emphasizes sexuality and

under emphasizes the role of social relationships, which do play an important role.

A number of critics have argued that Eysenck’s data are flawed and scales subject to response

bias (Farrington et al., 1982). The problem raised here is that the research made comparisons

between convicted offenders and the population at large, which means that it excludes those who

committed crimes and who are not caught.

The major criticism about operant conditioning is that it fails taking into account the role of

inherited and cognitive factors in learning, making the explanation of the learning process in

humans and animals incomplete (McLeod, 2007).

Contributions to the field

In spite of some criticism, some biological theories have been extremely helpful providing

scientific evidence and experiments used were measurable and objective in a way that they can be

tested for reliability.

Major contributions of Lombroso include the synthesis of the study of crime, the use of a

medical model to frame the perspective, the revolution of phrenology and atavism linked together,

and finally the creation of a ‘mind map’ that could lead to innovative ways to understand criminal

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activity and behavior. Although his crime explanations are not widely used today, it provided a

foundation for further reflexion in the criminology field.

Psychological theories are revolutionary in explaining the association between criminal

behavior, personality, intelligence and learning. Psychoanalysis has been greatly helpful in treating

patients and contributory to psychology, encouraging modern theorists to modify it for the better,

using its basic principles, but eliminating its major flaws (McLeod, 2007).

Eysenck’s theory points on some useful directions concerning the prevention of crime; the

underlying tendencies that manifest as criminal behavior might be detectable during childhood so it

proposes solutions to alter socialization experiences and prevent a possible tendency to turn into

delinquency (early treatment, interventions from the parents…). Other ways to prevent this are

personality tests, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the

California Psychological Inventory (CPI), which have been used in efforts to measure and link

abnormal personality characteristics to deviant behaviors (Lewis, 2014).

Operant conditioning is also useful to explain a wide variety of behaviors (process of learning,

language acquisition and addiction), having practical application that could be applied in prisons,

psychiatric hospitals, or even classrooms (McLeod, 2007).

Further critical thinking

This essay provided a comprehensive introduction of two criminological theories that have

had an impact in the criminal justice system, but also in science, neurology, biology and

psychology. Both have tried to explain how and why crime occurs, why an individual behaves in

such way and what professionals have to do to prevent it. The thing is, no theory clearly explains

crime, they both address deviance explanations from different perspectives, although feasible. Both

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theories present advantages and disadvantages but each provide practical value to criminologists

today. Because each individual is unique, more extensive research and data collection need to be

fostered, as well as taking each case individually.

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