Unit 1: Nature of Quantitative Research

Lesson 2: Types of Quantitative Research

Contents
Engage 1
Introduction 1
Objectives 2

Explore 2

Explain and Elaborate 5

Quantitative Research 5
Types of Quantitative Research 7

Extend 13
Activity 13

Evaluate 14

Wrap Up 16

Bibliography 17
Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Engage

Introduction

Fig. 1. A child looking through binoculars

Have you ever looked around and wondered how things, whether objects or experiences,
are related to one another? What makes these relationships possible? Similarly, have you
ever wondered how certain situations happen repeatedly? How can we make sense of these
observations? If we would like to research on these observations, how do we proceed?

The conduct of quantitative research allows for an individual to make sense of relationships
between objects, observations, or experiences. This lesson is a discussion of the different
types of quantitative research. Upon learning about the types of quantitative research, this
lesson will highlight how these types may be applied across fields.

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
● Identify the different types of quantitative research.
● Explain the characteristics of each type of quantitative research.
● Apply the type of quantitative research that is appropriate for each specific field.

DepEd Competency
Illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields. (CS_RS12-Ia-c-2)

Explore

10 minutes

Find a partner for this activity. Think of key words that come to mind when you encounter
the words survey and experiment. Write your answers on the space below. Discuss your
answers with your partner using the guide questions that follow.

Key words for survey Key words for experiment

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Guide Questions
1. As a pair, what are your similar key words for survey and experiment? List them down
below.

Survey Experiment

2. Choose one different key word per person for both survey and experiment. Explain in one
to two sentences why you think those key words refer to survey and experiment.

Different key words for survey Different key words for experiment

Key word: ___________________________________ Key word: ___________________________________

Explanation:
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Explanation:
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Key word: ___________________________________ Key word: ___________________________________

Explanation:
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Explanation:
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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

3. As a pair, how would you describe a survey and an experiment based on the common
key words you listed? Write your answers on the space provided below.

A survey is _______________________________________________________________________________________
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An experiment is _______________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Explain and Elaborate

Quantitative Research
There are three main research designs: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
designs. Quantitative research is defined as “a means for testing objective theories by
examining the relationship among variables” according to Creswell (2009), a famous book
author and researcher. In general, quantitative research focuses on the following:
● collection of observable and measurable data
● standardized data collection instruments
● statistical techniques in data analysis

Review
Quantitative research deals with empirical, observable, and measurable
data that are often expressed in numbers and analyzed through statistical
techniques.

Correlational and Causal Research

Quantitative research may either be correlational or causal. Correlational research
involves identifying relationships between two variables. A correlation is “a statistical
measure of association between two variables” as explained by Vanderstoep and Johnston
(2009), two well-known communication and social sciences researchers.

Correlational research may look at the following:

1. whether an association exists between variables
2. the magnitude of the existing association between two variables
3. the direction of the association between two variables

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

An example of correlational research is the relationship between hours of sleep and test
scores among students. Based on the main focus points of correlational research, the
following results are possible: there is no significant relationship between hours of sleep
and test scores, or higher test scores are related to more hours of sleep among students.

Although it is not exclusive to the field, correlational research is often used in quantitative
research in the social sciences. In psychology, different types of correlational research are
used to look at patterns and associations of human behavior. An example is looking at
whether there is an association between the number of hours a student spends on social
media and his/her academic performance.

In economics, correlational research may also be used to determine what affects (or is
affected by) certain economic variables. For example, we are looking at the relationship
between the foreign exchange rates and the credit rating of a particular country.

In politics, correlational research may also be used to study whether an association exists
between different political variables. For example, looking at the relationship between the
crime rate and the number of votes a politician garnered during an election.

While quantitative correlational research can determine whether a relationship is significant

between two variables, it does not say that one variable causes the other. This latter type of
quantitative research is called causal research.

A causal research looks at causes and effects. Causation refers to the claim that a change
in one variable creates a change in another variable. An example of causal research is
looking at the cause and effect relationship between a food ingredient and the rate of decay
of a food sample. A possible research study based on this example can examine how an
additional unit of the food ingredient (cause) leads to faster decay of the food sample
(effect).

Similar to correlational research, causal research is also applicable in different fields. Causal
research is often used in studying the natural sciences, but it is not exclusive to this field.
For example, in chemistry, causal research is applied in the conduct of chemical

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

experiments to see whether a change in the quantity of one substance affects the
characteristics of another substance.

Types of Quantitative Research

There are two main types of quantitative research: survey research and experimental
research. According to Creswell (2009), survey research “provides a quantitative or numeric
description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population.” On the other hand,
experimental research “tests the impact of a treatment (or an intervention) on an
outcome, controlling all other factors that might influence that outcome.”

Both types of quantitative research draw findings by studying a sample population. Both
types of quantitative research use statistical techniques to process and analyze the
information acquired from their respective data collection techniques.

What is the difference between correlation and

causation?

Survey Research
Survey research is a correlational type of quantitative research. This design makes use of a
questionnaire as its main data collection tool. According to Neuman (2014), a well-known
sociologist, the survey is “the most widely used social science data-gathering technique.”
The contents of a questionnaire correspond to the objects or concepts whose correlations
are being analyzed.

Survey research has the following main components as explained by Creswell (2009) and
Neuman (2014):

1. Survey design. There are two main types of survey designs: cross-sectional and
longitudinal. A cross-sectional survey acquires information at one point in time. A
longitudinal survey acquires information at multiple points in time to compare,
contrast, and assess changes in responses.

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

For example, researchers from a government agency on population research are

conducting a cross-sectional survey on the number of senior citizens (aged 60 years
old and above) in each household within a specific area. To proceed, they will collect
responses from each household at a single period of time (e.g., during the whole
month of January on a given year).

On the other hand, this example of a cross-sectional survey becomes a longitudinal

survey when the representatives return to the households to collect the same kind of
responses (number of senior citizens) every year for five years. By looking at
longitudinal data, the researchers will be able to compare and contrast whether the
number of senior citizens increased or decreased during the five-year period.

2. Population and sample. Survey research involves getting a sample from a

population. A population is a general group of people with similar characteristics. A
sample is a subgroup of the population that is chosen either randomly or
purposively to participate in the survey research.

For example, survey research will be conducted in a class of Senior High School
students for the purpose of testing the relationship between after-school activities
and student performance. The population is the whole number of Senior High School
students. The sample is the chosen subgroup within the population (e.g., males only)
from which responses will be collected.

3. Survey instrument. The survey instrument, otherwise known as the questionnaire,

is the main data collection tool of a survey research. It contains closed-ended
questions with fixed answers that will be given to the selected sample. The responses
of the participants will be used in analyzing the relationships of interest.

According to Neuman (2014), survey questions may belong to the following

categories:
● Behavior - e.g., How frequently do you use social media applications?
● Attitudes/beliefs/opinions - e.g., What do you think about animal therapy?
● Characteristics - e.g., What is your highest educational attainment?

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

● Expectations - e.g., Do you plan to visit a coffee shop in the next two weeks?
● Self-classification - e.g., Do you consider yourself socially aware of current
events and issues?
● Knowledge - e.g., Who is your student council batch representative?

4. Data analysis and interpretation. A data analysis and interpretation plan is also
part of the survey design. The analysis may either be descriptive or inferential. A
descriptive analysis provides a numerical report of the results of the survey, which
may include frequencies or average scores. An inferential analysis makes
comparisons among the survey results to establish and explain relationships.

Remember
A survey research is composed of survey design, population and
sample, survey instrument, and data analysis and interpretation.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is a type of quantitative research aimed at causation. With the use
of the cause and effect logic, an experimental research looks at whether the application of a
treatment, otherwise known as an intervention, causes an effect on the sample being
experimented on (Creswell, 2009; Leavy, 2017).

Experimental research has the following main components as discussed by Creswell (2009),
Leavy (2017), and Neuman (2014):

1. Respondents. The respondents in experimental research are called groups. Samples

are selected and then differentiated into groups. There are two main subgroups in an
experimental research: experimental and control groups.
● The experimental group is the group that receives the experimental
treatment or intervention.
● The control group is the group that does not receive the experimental
treatment or intervention. While the control group does not receive an

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

intervention, it is still a part of the experimental research to assess similarities

or differences with the results drawn from the experimental group.

2. Variables. There are two main types of variables used in experimental research, and
their interaction constitutes the cause-and-effect relationship. These two main types
are the independent and dependent variables.
● The independent variable is the treatment variable. It causes and explains
the effect. The independent variable may be manipulated in order to see
changes in the produced effects.
● The dependent variable is the outcome variable. It is the effect. It is the
response to the application of or changes in the independent variable. The
dependent variable may reflect different outcomes depending on the
conditions of the independent variable.

3. Stages of the experimental procedure. Experimental research may undergo three

stages of the experimental procedure: the pretest stage, the actual intervention
stage, and the posttest stage. The actual intervention stage is the execution phase
of the planned experimental procedure/s. It is the phase where the interaction
between the variables of the study occurs. There are two main stages of procedure in
between the actual intervention: the pretest and the post-test.
● The pretest is the stage prior to the conduct of the experiment or the
intervention. There is no interaction yet between the variables of the study.
● The posttest is the stage after the conduct of the experiment or the
intervention. It is the stage after the interaction of the independent and
dependent variables. The results of the posttest reflect whether there have
been changes in the dependent variable based on the conditions of the
independent variable.

4. Instrumentation and materials. Experimental research also makes use of different

instruments and/or materials in the pretest, posttest, or actual intervention stages.
The research instruments and materials may differ according to the nature of the
experiment. Generally, an instrument in experimental research is used to record the
observations at any stage of the experiment.

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5. Experimental procedures. Experimental procedures differ according to which

group is studied and the actions done with the group(s). There are four main
experimental procedures, which are as follows:
● A pre-experimental design studies and provides an experimental
intervention to a single experimental group. It does not make use of a control
group.
● A true experiment makes use of both experimental and control groups,
whose respondents are randomly assigned. Variants of true experiments
differ according to the participation of the experimental and control groups in
the different stages of procedure. For example, one type of true experiment
has the experimental group participating in all stages (pretest, actual
intervention, and posttest). Another type of true experiment only has the
control groups participating in the pretest and posttest stages but not in the
actual intervention stage.
● A quasi-experiment uses both experimental and control groups. It differs
from a true experiment in that the participants of the quasi-experiment are
not randomly assigned into groups. An example of a quasi-experiment is in
medical research such as the effects of a developing drug. A team gathers a
number of respondents and purposively assigns them into a control group
and an experimental group and engages these groups in the pretest, actual
intervention, and posttest stages.
● A single-subject design only has a single individual as the lone respondent of
the experiment. The experiment proceeds by observing the individual at
different experimental stages and over time.

6. Data analysis and interpretation. Similar to survey research, the results of

experimental research may be analyzed in a descriptive or inferential manner. The
inferential analysis of experimental research may vary according to the appropriate
statistical tests used in the study. What sets experimental research apart from survey
research is the overall goal of causation and not correlation.

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Remember
An experimental research is composed of respondents, variables,
stages of the experimental procedure, instrumentation and
materials, experimental procedures, and data analysis and
interpretation.

The two types of quantitative research, namely, survey and experimental, are applicable in
various fields and disciplines, being examples of correlational and causal research. Both
survey and experimental research may be used in fields, such as medicine, natural sciences,
social sciences, and business.

Table 1. Sample application of quantitative research to different fields of study

Field of study Sample application of quantitative research

Medicine Survey Patient preference for consultation schedules

Experiment Effectiveness of vaccines

Chemistry Survey Most common chemical substances in high school

laboratory experiments

Experiment Factors behind the speed of crystal formation

Biology Survey Most common inherited genetic diseases among

males

Experiment Effects of a new brand of fertilizer on the growth of

crops

Psychology Survey Collection of demographic data (basic information) on

experiment participants

Experiment Psychological experiment on the effects of

cooperation on team dynamics

Politics Survey Voter preference in presidential elections

Experiment Mock elections involving candidates with

predetermined characteristics and effects on the
number of votes won

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Economics Survey Level of income per household

Experiment Simulation of buy-and-sell trading

Culinary Arts Survey Level of satisfaction for a particular dish

Experiment Impact of a particular ingredient on nutritional value

Business Survey Most preferred mobile phone brands

Experiment Pilot study on a new business concept

Extend

Activity
Based on your track and strand, list down two sets of relationships between two objects
and/or phenomena. Think about whether each relationship can be analyzed through a
correlation or a causal relationship. Explain your answer in one to two sentences.

Track and strand:

1.

2.

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Unit 1.2: Types of Quantitative Research

Guide
To recall, a relationship is considered correlational if it examines whether there is an
association between variables and if it looks into the possible magnitude or direction
of the said association. A relationship is considered as causal if changes in the
variables follow the cause and effect logic. In doing the activity, you can ask yourself
the following guide questions:
1. Did Object A cause the change in Object B? If yes, the relationship between
Objects A and B is a causal relationship.
2. Is Object A just a factor, not the root cause, of the change in Object B? If yes,
then the relationship between Objects A and B is a correlational relationship.

Evaluate

A. Identify the concept described below. Write your

answers in the space provided.

1. This type of survey research collects responses from participants at one point in
time.

2. This type of experimental research is focused on a single group.

3. In experimental research, this is given after the experimental intervention in order to

assess the impact of the intervention.

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B. Based on the given question samples for a survey

research, identify which category each survey
question belongs in.

1. Compare the longitudinal survey and cross-sectional survey in studying the behavior
of senior high students who spend more than 5 hours in online gaming.

2. How can experimental research help in studying the benefit of eight hour sleep
among the youth?

3. How can inferential analysis be used in studying productivity levels among

employees who work four days a week?

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Wrap Up
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● Survey research is a correlational type of quantitative research that describes

attitudes and trends through numerical data. A questionnaire is used to collect
data from a sample drawn out of a general population.

● Experimental research is a causal type of quantitative research that examines

the effect of a treatment or intervention. It analyzes the cause and effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Participants of
experimental research are grouped into two groups: experimental or control,
mainly differentiated according to whether they receive intervention or not.

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Bibliography
Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches,
3rd ed. California: SAGE Publications Inc., 2009.

Gray, Paul S., John B. Williamson, David A. Karp, and John R. Dalphin. The Research
Imagination: An Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. New York:
Cambridge University Press. 2007.

Leavy, Patricia. Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Methods, Arts-Based, and
Community-Based Participatory Research Approaches. New York: The Guilford Press.
2017.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7th
ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited., 2014.

Vanderstoep, Scott W., and Deirdre D. Johnston. Research Methods for Everyday Life: Blending
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass., 2009.

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