BHARATH KUMAR

Welding

➢ A joining process that produces coalescence of materials by heating them

to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure or
by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler
metal.

➢ Welding is used for making permanent joints.

 Classification of Welding processes

➢ Solid State Welding or Pressure Welding:

A group of welding processes that produce coalescence of materials by the

application of pressure without melting any of the joint components.
(Ex) -Friction welding

➢ Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding:

Any welding process that melts together of filler metal and base metal, or of
base metal only, to produce coalescence of materials.
(Ex)- Gas welding, Arc welding
Fusion Welding Processes
Solid State Welding Processes
 Arc Welding
➢ Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join
metals.

➢ An electric arc from an AC or DC power supply creates an intense heat of around 6500°F
(3590°C) which melts the metal at the join between two work pieces.

➢ An arc can be defined as an electric current flowing between two electrodes through an
ionized column of gas.

➢ In welding, the arc not only provides the heat needed to melt the electrode and the base
metal but under certain conditions it also supplies the means to transport the molten
metal to the work from the tip of the electrode.

➢ Technically an electric arc is just a visible plasma discharge between two electrodes that is
resulted from electrical current ionizing gases in the air. Electric arcs even occur in nature in
the form of lightning.
 Most Popular Arc Welding Processes

➢ Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

➢ Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW / TIG)

➢ Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW / MIG / MAG)

➢ Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

➢ Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

 Types

➢ Manual (SMAW, GTAW)

➢ Machine (SAW, Pulsed GMAW)

➢ Semi-Automatic (GMAW)

➢ Automatic (GTAW)
The basic components of SMAW

➢ Power Source

➢ Electrode Holder

➢ Electrodes

➢ Cables/Lead
 SMAW – Power Source and Polarity

The output of the power source can be either AC (alternating current) or DC

(Direct current). A constant current power source is the most common and
appropriate power source for the welding process. A transformer-rectifier DC
power source is used to supply the required power.
In DCEP, the electricity flows into the tip of the electrode and concentrates
about two-thirds of the heat, which gives good penetration. Hence it is usually
used on thicker steels.

In DCEN, the electricity flows out of the rod, concentrating about one-third of
the heat on the electrode. Hence the penetration is less, this a very good
choice for thinner steels.
 SMAW electrodes

➢ Electrodes are coated with flux for providing

shielding to the molten metal from atmosphere.

➢ General-purpose electrodes (for mild steel) such

as E6010, E6011, and E6013.

➢ Low hydrogen electrodes (For Carbon Steel & low

alloy steel Welding) E.g., E7018, E8018-B2,
E9018-B3, E9015-B91.

➢ Stainless Steel Electrode (for stainless steel and

other high-quality metals) E.g., E308-16, E309-16.
 SMAW Electrode Coating Functions

➢ It generates gases that displace the oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere
and provide a gaseous shield around the arc to protect the molten droplets
during their passage across the arc as well as the molten weld puddle.
➢ It produces slag which further protects the molten droplets in the arc and the
molten weld puddle from atmospheric attack, and also provides an insulating
blanket over the weld bead.
 Low hydrogen electrode
➢ Low hydrogen electrodes produce less hydrogen gas than other types of electrodes. This is
important because too much hydrogen gas can cause porosity in the weld, which can
weaken it.

➢ Hydrogen can have adverse effects on welds in some steels under certain conditions. Low
hydrogen electrodes are less likely to cause cracking in the weld area. A low hydrogen
electrode is an electrode used in welding that has a lower content of hydrogen than other
types of electrodes.

➢ One of the sources of hydrogen is moisture in the electrode coverings. For this reason, the
proper storage, treatment, and handling of electrodes are necessary.

➢ Low-hydrogen electrode coverings can be designed to resist moisture absorption for a

considerable time in a humid environment.

➢ Electrodes with other than low-hydrogen coverings may produce “hydrogen-induced

cracking” in low-alloy high-strength steels.
 SMAW Electrodes Classification

Carbon Steel Electrode : E7018-1

E - Electrode
70 - Minimum Tensile strength in ksi of weld metal
1 - Position of welding (All positions – F, H, V, OH)
8 - Type of flux coating (Low Hydrogen, Potassium, Iron Powder)
and Polarity (DCEP or AC)
-1 - Charpy V notch energy of atleast 27 J at -45°C
 SMAW Electrodes Classification

Low Alloy Steel Electrode : E9018-B3

E - Electrode
90 - Minimum Tensile strength in ksi of weld metal
1 - Position of welding (All positions – F, H, V, OH)
8 - Type of flux coating (Low Hydrogen, Potassium, Iron Powder
and polarity (DCEP or AC)
B3 - Chemical composition of filler metal (2.25Cr-1Mo)
 SMAW Electrodes Classification

Stainless Steel Electrode : E316L-16

E - Electrode

316 - Grade of stainless steel

L - Low carbon content specified

-16 - Polarity (DCEP and AC) and Position (F, H, V, OH)

Advantages of SMAW

➢ Suitable for most of the commercially available metals and alloys.

➢ The equipment is comparatively inexpensive, simple and portable.
➢ This process can be used in all welding positions.
➢ This welding process is flexible and can be applied to a variety of joint
configurations and positions.
➢ No need for separate gas shielding.
➢ Less sensitive to wind and drafts if compared to gas shielded arc
welding processes.
➢ It can be used in areas where access is limited (electrodes can be
bent and even a mirror can be used in tight spaces).
Disadvantages of SMAW

➢ Low deposition rate.

➢ This process cannot be automated.

 GTAW

➢ It is a welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode

to produce the weld.

➢ The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert

shielding gas, usually argon.
The basic components of GTAW

➢ Power source
➢ Electrode
➢ Welding Torch
➢ Shielding Gas
➢ Cables/Lead
 GTAW

Power Source: A constant current power source is the most common and
appropriate power source for the GTAW welding process. A transformer-
rectifier power source is used to supply the required power. High-frequency
is the best arc start as it is easy to perform.

Electrode: Either Tungsten or Tungsten alloys are used as GTAW

electrodes. The reason for using tungsten as an electrode is its high melting
point (34100C).

Filler metal: Additional filler metal is fed if required.

 GTAW

Current and polarity: Direct current with electrode negative (DCEN) also
known as “straight polarity” is commonly used in GTAW since it facilitates
deeper penetration and fast welding speed. Direct current with electrode
positive (DCEP) also known as “reverse polarity” is avoided in GTAW because
it causes overheating of electrodes.

Shielding Gas: Shielding gas is supplied through the nozzle of the torch to
prevent the atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool. Inert gases
such as Argon or Helium or a combination of both can be used as shielding
gas.
 GTAW

Classification of tungsten electrodes is done based on chemical

composition. These electrodes are color-coded to distinguish them from
others. The color appears at the tip of the electrode. Different types of TIG
welding electrodes are as follows;

1.Pure Tungsten (Color Code: Green)

2.Thoriated (Color Code: Red)
3.Ceriated (Color Code: Orange)
4.Lanthanated (Color Code: Gold)
5.Zirconiated (Color Code: Brown)
6.Rare Earth (Color Code: Gray)
 Filler Metal Classification

ER90S-B3

ER – Electrode or Rod

90 – Minimum Tensile Strength of weld metal in ksi

S - Solid

B3 - Chemical composition of filler metal (2.25Cr-1Mo)

Advantages of GTAW :

➢ GTAW produces high-quality weld, most suitable for industries requiring

precision weldings such as aerospace industries and nuclear industries.

➢ Produces spatter-free joints.

➢ Welding can be made in all positions.

➢ GTAW process can easily be automated.

➢ Excellent root pass weld penetration can be obtained with GTAW.

Limitations of GTAW:

➢ Lower deposition rate as compared to other consumable arc welding

processes.

➢ Slightly more skilled welders required as compared to Shielded metal arc

welding (SMAW) or gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

➢ GTAW is quite expensive than other conventional welding processes such

as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).

➢ Shielding of the molten weld pool is quite difficult during windy and drafty
environments.
 GMAW
➢ GMAW (MIG-MAG) uses an electrode wire from a wire spool to create a
weld. The electrode wire is fed through a gun, and the welder uses the gun
to guide the weld.

➢ Argon, Helium, Carbon dioxide or a mixture of these gases are used. These
gases shield the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination.

➢ Whenever Carbon dioxide is used as a shielding gas in Gas Metal Arc

Welding (GMAW), the term MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding is used
because Carbon dioxide is an active gas. Whereas, other shielding gases such
as Argon and Helium are inert in nature. Hence, whenever these gases are
used as shielding gas, the term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding is used.

➢ GMAW is one of the most popular welding processes. It is easy to learn and
use, and it produces high-quality welds.
The equipment needed for
GMAW set up :

1. Power Source

2. Filler metal feeding

Mechanism

3. Welding Gun

4. Shielding Gas

5. Welding cables or leads

and gas hose pipes
 GMAW

➢ In GMAW, Voltage, Current, and wire feed speed must be controlled for
producing sound welding.

➢ Voltage controls the weld profile.

➢ Current controls the heat input, size of weld, and depth of penetration.
 Modes of metal transfer
➢ Short circuit - A gas metal arc welding process variation in which the
consumable electrode is deposited during repeated short circuits.

➢ Globular - The transfer of molten metal in large drops from a consumable

electrode across the arc.

➢ Spray - Metal transfer in which molten metal from a consumable electrode is

propelled axially across the arc in small droplets.

➢ Pulsed Spray - A variation of spray transfer in which the welding power is

cycled from a low level to a high level, at which point spray transfer is attained,
resulting in a lower average voltage and current.
 Filler Metal Classification

ER70S-6

ER – Electrode or Rod

70 – Minimum Tensile Strength of weld metal in ksi

S - Solid

6 - Chemical composition of filler metal (C-Mn-Si)

Advantages of GMAW

➢ GMAW can be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys.

➢ It can be used to weld in all positions.

➢ Higher deposition rates.

➢ Due to the continuous electrode (wire feed) feed, longer welds can be
deposited without intermediate stops and starts;

➢ Very less post-weld cleaning is required due to the absence of any heavy
slag.

➢ This process can be easily automated.

Limitations of GMAW

➢ The GMAW equipment is more complex, costlier, and less portable.

➢ Shielding of the molten weld pool is quite difficult during windy and drafty
environments. High chances of porosity in the weld metal during windy
environments.
 SAW

➢ Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is an arc welding process in which arc is

generated between a bare electrode and the workpiece.

➢ The arc and the molten weld pool are submerged in a blanket of granular
fusible flux on the workpiece.

➢ Flux covers the arc and prevents fumes, sparks, spatter, and intense ultra
violet radiation from escaping.
The basic components of SAW process:

➢ Power source

➢ Welding head

➢ Flux delivery system

(Flux hopper)

➢ Electrode

➢ Flux

➢ Cables / Lead
 SAW

Power Source: The power source for a Submerged arc welding process is of
great significance and should be able to produce high current at high duty cycle.

Welding Head: A typical welding head consists of the following:

•The gun assembly and contact tip
•Wire feed motor and feed-roll assembly
•Accessories for mounting and positioning the head
Electrode: Bare solid wire or strip is commonly used as electrode of submerged
arc welding.
Flux delivery system (Flux hopper): The flux is stored in a hopper and keeps on
feeding sufficient amount of flux on the joint. A nozzle is usually mounted on
the welding head for the delivery of flux to the weld joint.
 Flux-Filler metal/Electrode Classification
F7A2/P2-EA4

F – Flux

7 – Minimum tensile strength (in increments of 10000 psi) of weld

metal deposited with flux

A – As welded

P – Postweld Heat Treated

2 – Charpy V-notch energy of atleast 27 J at -20°C

EA4 – Filler metal Classification

 Types of SAW flux
Acidic - The acid fluxes contain substantial amounts of silica, silicates in the
form of calcium and/or manganese silicate and manganese oxide. These
fluxes react with the weld pool and will raise both silicon and manganese
content of the weld together with a high oxygen content.

Neutral - Neutral fluxes are designed to have little or no effect on the

chemical analysis of the weld metal and therefore on the mechanical
properties.

Basic - The basic fluxes have a low silica content and are composed of
varying amounts of calcium carbonate and/or fluoride, alumina, calcium,
manganese and magnesium oxides and rutile. This combination of
compounds gives a clean, low sulphur, low oxygen weld metal with good to
excellent notch toughness.
 Basicity index (BI) of the flux
➢ The basicity of a flux has a major effect on the weld metal properties, most
importantly the notch toughness. As a general rule the higher the basicity the
higher the notch toughness.
➢ The index is calculated by dividing the sum of the percentages of the basic
constituents by the sum of the acid constituents. Calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium and manganese oxides, calcium carbonate and calcium
fluoride are the basic constituents of a flux; silica and alumina the acid
constituents.
➢ Acid fluxes have a basicity index of 0.5 to 0.8

➢ Neutral fluxes have a basicity index of 0.8 to 1.2

➢ Basic fluxes have a basicity index of 1.2 to 2.5

Advantages of SAW:

➢ Excellent weld quality and high productivity.

➢ High deposition rates.

Limitations of SAW:

➢ Can be used in only flat and horizontal positions.

➢ Limited to materials that are long and straight or are rotated pipe.
 Duty cycle of Welding machine

Duty Cycle in Welding for Welding Machine refers to how long a welding
machine will weld at a given current before it overload or overheat. Duty
cycles are measured per 10 minutes.
Example
A machine if used with a 300 ampere current for welding @ 60% duty cycle will give
an output of 300 amps for 6 minutes before overheating. So after, every 6 month
machine requires 4 minutes cooling time and the machine can be used for 6 minutes
every 10 minutes at 300 amperes.
➢ Open Circuit Voltage or OCV

➢ Closed circuit or operating voltage

 Open Circuit Voltage or OCV
➢ Open-circuit voltage, or OCV, is the voltage between the electrode and
workpiece when there is no arcing. The Welding Machine supplies the voltage
with zero amperage.

➢ Being 80 Volts is a safe limit of electric hazard for humans, welding power
sources are designed to have a maximum OCV of 80 Volts.

➢ The typical open circuit voltage for an arc welding machine is 50 volts to 80
volts. This is required for easy welding arc initiation.

➢ Voltage values are kept lower due to safety concerns while amperage is high on
welding machines to give high heat input within electricity safe limit.

➢ Voltage is responsible for weld bead width while amperage gives welding
penetration depth.
 Closed circuit or operating voltage
➢ Closed circuit voltage is the voltage measured across the arc during welding
that means the voltage found among the work-piece and the electrode
holder during welding.

➢ It will vary depending upon type of electrode, polarity, arc length & current
type. Typically, the closed circuit voltage runs between 15 – 40 volts.
 Safety in welding
➢ PPE for welding includes items such as:
Dark Welding Helmet, Welding Jacket, Welding mask & respirator, Leather Gloves,
Welding sleeves, Apron, Welding Safety Shoes, Welding Face shield, Proper glass filter,
Ear plug.
➢ Fire extinguishers / sand to be available at hand

➢ Welding cables:
– should have complete insulation
– be capable of handling the max current required for the work.
– should be free from repair
– to be kept dry (free from grease & oil).

➢ Welding not be done in confined areas.

➢ Welding area should be free of combustible materials.
Groove weld: a weld made in a groove formed within a single member or in the
groove between two members to be joined.
Fillet weld: a weld of approximately triangular cross section joining two
surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in a lap joint, tee joint, or
corner joint
Parts of Groove Weld
Parts of Fillet Weld
Heat Affected Zone or HAZ in Welding is the zone adjacent to the weld metal
that is not melted but altered by the welding thermal cycle. The alteration
refers to the changes in the mechanical & microstructural properties.

Various zones around Weld metal and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Size of HAZ in welding increases with increase in total welding heat Input.

Factors affecting heat affected zone in Welding or HAZ

➢ Welding heat input

➢ Welding current, voltage
➢ Welding travel speed
➢ Welding technique - Weaving or stringer beads
➢ Welding positions
➢ Welding preheat
➢ Control of interpass temperature
➢ Base metal properties- thermal conductivity
 Construction codes

ASME SEC I : Rules for construction of power boilers

ASME B31.1 : Power Piping

 Welding Codes

AWS 2.4 : Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive

Examination

AWS 3.0 : Standard Welding Terms and Definitions

ASME SEC IX : Qualification Standard for Welding, Brazing, and Fusing

Procedures; Welders; Brazers; and Welding, Brazing, and
Fusing Operators

AWS D1.1 : Structural Welding Code - Steel

AWS D1.6 : Structural Welding Code – Stainless Steel

 Weldability

The capacity of material to be welded under the imposed fabrication

conditions into a specific, suitably designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service.
 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)

Welding Procedure specifications is a written document providing direction to

the person (welder or welding operator) applying the material joining process.

Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)

The purpose of qualifying the procedure specification is to demonstrate that

the joining process proposed for construction is capable of producing joints
having the required mechanical properties for the intended application.
 Contents of the WPS
The completed WPS shall describe all the essential, and when required,
supplementary essential variables for each welding process. Non essential
variables are optional.
Contents of the PQR
➢ The completed PQR shall document all essential and, when required,
supplementary essential variables for each welding process used during
the welding of the test coupon. Non essential variables are optional.

➢ It also contains the test results of the tested specimens.

Essential variables are conditions in which a change, as described in the specific
variables, is considered to affect the mechanical properties (other than
toughness) of the joint. (Material Specification, Filler metal classification/Flux, Preheat,
PWHT, Shielding gas composition etc)

Supplementary essential variables are conditions in which a change will affect

the toughness properties of the joint, heat-affected zone, or base material.
(Group Number, Interpass temperature, PWHT Time and Temperature range, Heat input etc)

Nonessential variables are conditions in which a change, as described in the

specific variables, is not considered to affect the mechanical properties of the
joint. (Joint design)
 Materials (Specifications and Grade)
SA 106 – Seamless pipe (Carbon steel) – Grade A, B, C
SA 182 – Forgings (Low Alloy and Stainless Steel) – Grade – F11, F22, F91, F304, F310, F316
SA 210 – Seamless Tube (Carbon steel) – Grade A-1, C
SA 213 – Seamless tube (Low Alloy and Stainless steel) – T11, T22, T91, TP304, TP316
SA 234 – Piping fittings (Carbon steel and Low Alloy steel) –WPB, WPC, WP11, WP22, WP91
SA 240 – Plate, Sheet and Strip (Stainless steel) – 304, 310, 316, 347
SA 335 – Seamless pipe (Low Alloy Steel) – P11, P22, P91
SA 387 – Plate (Low Alloy Steel) – Grade 11, 22, 91
SA 515 / SA 516 – Plate (Carbon steel) – Grade 60, 65, 70
 Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. The
properties exhibited by alloys are often quite different from the properties of
their individual components.

Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel Properties

Primary alloying elements: In the production of Carbon Steels, elements that
are added to refine molten steel in the ladle (or other refining vessel) in order
to achieve desired metallurgical properties. Primary alloying elements : C, Mn
and Si.

Secondary alloying elements: Added to refine molten steel in the ladle ( or

other refining vessel ) along with Primary Alloying Elements to enhance
properties & performance. Secondary alloying elements include Cu, Ni, Cr, Mo,
AI, V, Nb, B, Co, and W
 Purpose of Alloying Elements
C Increase Hardness, Yield & Tensile Strength but Decrease Ductility

Si Increase Endurance Strength

Mn Increase Endurance Strength

Mo Increase Strength, Toughness, Corrosion Resistance, Creep resistance

Cr Increase Hardness & Elastic Limit & Corrosion Resistance

V Resist softening at elevated temperatures, Resist high Impact

W Increase Strength, Toughness, Corrosion Resistance

Ni Increases strength, toughness and fatigue resistance.

Cu Increase Thermal & Electrical Conductivity & Corrosion Resistance

 P‐Numbers (P-No.) and Group Numbers

➢ P‐Numbers are assigned to base metals for the purpose of reducing the
number of welding and brazing procedure qualifications required.

➢ P‐Numbers are alphanumeric designations. (P‐No. 1, 4, 5A, 15E).

➢ Group Numbers : Ferrous base metals have been assigned Group Numbers
creating subsets of P‐Numbers that are used when WPSs are required to be
qualified by toughness testing by other Sections or Codes.

➢ These assignments are based essentially on comparable base metal

characteristics, such as composition, weldability, brazeability, and mechanical
properties, where this can logically be done.
P No Material Specification and Grade Alloying elements
1 SA 210 Gr A1, IS 20262 E250 A, SA 106 Gr B,
C–Mn–Si
SA 516 Gr 70
4 SA 213 T11, SA 335 P11 1.25Cr–0.5Mo–Si
5A SA 213 T22, SA 335 P22 2.25Cr–1Mo
15E SA 213 T91, SA 335 P91 9Cr–1Mo–V
Austenitic Stainless Steel Grade 304 18Cr–8Ni
Austenitic Stainless Steel Grade 310S 25Cr–20Ni
8 Austenitic Stainless Steel Grade 316 16Cr–12Ni–2Mo
Austenitic Stainless Steel Grade 321 18Cr–10Ni–Ti
Austenitic Stainless Steel Grade 347 18Cr–10Ni–Cb
 Stainless steel

➢ Stainless steels contains minimum 10.5% chromium.

Austenitic stainless steel has austenite as the primary microstructure. Adding

nickel (8-20%) to the chromium-iron alloy produces a steel that is austenitic at
room temperature, with a face-centered cubic structure that resists corrosion. It
is non magnetic. Stabilizing elements are added in certain grades of austenitic
stainless steel to prevent the formation of chromium carbide at high
temperatures.

Ferritic stainless steel usually only have chromium as an alloying element. The
chromium content ranges from 10.5 to 18%. They have average corrosion
resistance and poor fabrication characteristics. It is magnetic.
 Stainless steel

Martensitic stainless steel consists of high carbon and lower chromium

content. Like ferritic grades, it is magnetic. It does display poor weldability
compared to other grades but it has higher hardenability and can be heat
treated to improve properties.

Duplex stainless steel is a mixture of austenitic and ferritic stainless steel.

Thus, it has the properties of both its constituents. It has high chromium
and low nickel concentration. With high tensile strength and good
weldability, duplex stainless steels offer unique advantages.
 Properties of metals

➢ Tensile strength is the maximum amount of tensile stress a material can

withstand before it fails or breaks. It is a measure of the material's ability to
resist deformation under tension or stretching forces.

➢ Ductility is defined as the ability of a material to be drawn or deformed

without fracture by tensile force.

➢ Hardness of a material is defined as its ability to withstand localized

permanent deformation, typically by indentation.
 Properties of metals

➢ Elasticity is the ability of a deformed material body to return to its original

shape and size when the forces causing the deformation are removed.

➢ Brittle is a mechanical property of a material manifested by failure without

undergoing any deformation on application of stress.

➢ Toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can
absorb before rupturing. Notch toughness testing is a method used to
quantify a material's ability to withstand an impact with a flaw present in
the material.
 Filler metals
F‐Number grouping of electrodes and welding rods is based essentially on their usability
characteristics, which fundamentally determine the ability of welders to make satisfactory
welds with a given filler metal. This grouping is made to reduce the number of welding
procedure and performance qualifications, where this can logically be done.
SFA Process Filler metals F No
5.1 SMAW E6013 2
5.1 SMAW E7018, E7018-1 4
5.4 SMAW E308-16, E309-16, E316-16 5
5.5 SMAW E8018-B2, E9018-B3, E9015-B91 4
5.9 GTAW ER308, , ER309, ER310, ER316 6
5.17 SAW EH14 6
5.18 GTAW & GMAW ER70S-6 6
5.23 SAW EA4 6
5.28 GTAW & GMAW ER70S-A1, ER80S-B2, ER90S-B3, ER90S-B91 6
Shielding Gas
Shielding Gas
Shielding Gas
 Preheat
Preheating involves heating the base metal, either in its entirety or just the region
surrounding the joint, to a specific desired temperature, called the preheat
temperature, prior to welding.
There are four primary reasons to utilize preheat:

(1) It slows the cooling rate in the weld metal and base metal, producing a more
ductile metallurgical structure with greater resistance to cracking;
(2) The slower cooling rate provides an opportunity for hydrogen that may be
present to diffuse out harmlessly, reducing the potential for cracking;
(3) It reduces the shrinkage stresses in the weld and adjacent base metal, which
is especially important in highly restrained joints;
(4) It raises some steels above the temperature at which brittle fracture would
occur in fabrication.
 Post heating

➢ Post heating in welding refers to the heating of the weldment after weld
completion to allow diffusion of hydrogen by keeping the welding area
temperature high enough for hydrogen to escape.

➢ Post heating performed immediately before weld get cold when welding is
completed or terminated any time in between.

➢ Post-heating is done to avoid delayed cracking in the weld.

➢ Methods of preheat / post heat - flame heating and induction heating.

 Critical Temperatures of Steel

➢ Critical temperature of steel defines phase transition between two phases of steel.

There are two types of critical temperature:

➢ Lower critical temperature: The temperature at which austenite starts to transform from
ferrite.

➢ Upper critical temperature: The temperature at which austenite is completely

transformed from ferrite.

Ferrite : Ferrite or α-ferrite is a body-centered cubic structure phase of iron which exists
below temperatures of 912°C for low concentrations of carbon in iron.

Austenite : Austenite, also known as gamma-phase iron (γ-Fe), is a non-magnetic face-

centered cubic structure phase of iron.
Phase diagrams are graphical representations of the phases present in an alloy at
different conditions of temperature, pressure, or chemical composition.
 Heat treatment

Heat treatment is the process of heating and cooling metals, using specific
predetermined methods to obtain desired properties.
Types of heat treatment

➢ Normalizing is a method of heat treatment in which metal is heated to a

temperature exceeding the upper limit of the critical range (i.e., above A3 point)
and cooled freely in air.

➢ Annealing is a method of heat treatment in which metal is heated to a temperature

exceeding the upper limit of the critical range and cooled slowly. This may be done
by putting off the furnace and allowing the steel to cool in the furnace.

➢ Quenching is a heat treatment process that involves heating a material to a high

temperature and then cooling it rapidly.
 Types of heat treatment
➢ Solution Annealing of Stainless Steel is a process in which stainless steel
metal is heated to a temperature above its upper critical point and then
cooled rapidly to restore back its original microstructure that is free
from carbide precipitation.
➢ Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase
the toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed
after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by
heating the metal to some temperature below the critical point for a
certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air.
➢ Stress relieving is to reduce the internal material stresses caused by
welding. This is done by heating the metal to a specific temperature and
holding it for a period of time and then allowing it to cool slowly.
 Sensitization in austenitic stainless steel
➢ Sensitization of stainless steel is the formation of chromium carbides at the
grain boundaries. When sensitization occurs, the steel becomes susceptible
to corrosion.

➢ Sensitization of stainless steel occurs when stainless steel is heated to

between 1100°F-1560°F (600°C to 850°C). At this temperature range,
chromium carbides can form on the grain boundaries of the austenitic
stainless steel.

➢ These chromium carbides are hard and brittle, and they can make the steel
susceptible to corrosion.

➢ Sensitization can be caused by several factors, including welding, heat

treatment, and exposure to high temperature during service.
 Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) or Stress Relieving

➢ It is a controlled heat treatment method in that welded components (welded

material) are reheated in a furnace or localized heating arrangement to a
temperature that is lower than it’s critical transformation temperature.

➢ This is followed by keeping the part at this pre-determined temperature for

certain time duration known as Holding Time.

➢ This is followed by slow & controlled cooling in the furnace to allow uniform-
controlled expansion & contraction.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) or stress-relieving (SR) have the following
benefits on the material:

➢ Reduce the weld & HAZ hardness.

➢ PWHT improves material ductility.

➢ Reduces the residual stresses and hence improves the service life.

➢ Improve weld & HAZ toughness.

➢ Soften the HAZ hardened zones.

➢ Provide creep properties enhancement for the materials.

 Mechanical testing or Destructive testing

➢ Tensile test to measure ultimate tensile strength of the material / weld

metal.

➢ Bend test to evaluate both the ductility and soundness of a material / weld
metal.

➢ Toughness test to measure the energy absorbed by the material / weld metal
at a specified temperature (below 0°C) when impact load is applied.

➢ Macro examination of weld metal and HAZ to check fusion and cracks.

➢ Hardness test to measure the ability of material / weld metal to resist

deformation.
 Non Destructive Examination (NDE)

The act of determining the suitability of some material or component for its
intended purpose using techniques that do not affect its serviceability.

➢ Visual Examination done prior to, during and after welding.

➢ Radiographic Examination to determine internal soundness of the weld.

➢ Ultrasonic Examination to determine internal soundness of the weld.

 Non Destructive Examination (NDE)

➢ Magnetic particle Examination is a method of locating and defining

discontinuities in magnetic materials. It is excellent for detecting surface
defects in welds, including discontinuities that are too small to be seen with
the naked eye, and those that are slightly subsurface.

➢ Liquid Penetrant Examination to locate surface cracks and pinholes that are
not visible to the naked eye.
 Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)

➢ The most serious problem of weldability in carbon and low-alloy steels is

hydrogen induced cracking.

➢ The main source of hydrogen is moisture which is inevitably present in all

types of fluxes. Oil, grease, paint and moisture on the base metal surface
or electrode-wire surface can also generate hydrogen during welding.

➢ HIC cracking often occurs after the welding has been completed and the
weldment has cooled down.
 Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)
➢ Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) is also known as:

Cold cracking, because it occurs when the metal has cooled below 150°C

Delayed cracking, because its formation is sometimes delayed for 20 hours or

more.

Hydrogen induced cracking is caused when below conditions presents:

➢ Hard microstructure: E.g., Martensite

➢ Residual stresses
➢ Molecular hydrogen.
 Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)

Hydrogen-induced cracking can be controlled by,

➢ Using hydrogen-controlled electrodes and dry, clean submerged-arc

welding consumables.

➢ Delayed cooling of the HAZ by extending preheating into post heating

without interruption.
 Weld Imperfections

➢ Burn Through
➢ Cracks
➢ Excessive/Inadequate Reinforcement
➢ Inclusions (Slag/Tungsten)
➢ Incomplete Fusion
➢ Incomplete Penetration
➢ Misalignment
➢ Overlap
➢ Porosity
➢ Root Concavity
➢ Undercut
 Performance Qualification
The purpose of qualifying the person who will use a joining process is to
demonstrate that person’s ability to produce a sound joint when using a
procedure specification.

Performance Qualification Record

The performance qualification record documents what occurred during the

production of a test coupon by a person using one or more joining processes
following an organization’s procedure specification.
 Essential Variables (Performance)
Essential variables are conditions in which a change, as described in the
specific variable list, will affect the ability of the person to produce a sound
joint.