1. What's an Argument?

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- Not all paragraphs or texts are arguments.
- Logic deals with arguments, so it's important to spot them.
- A passage is an argument if it tries to prove something.

2. Two Conditions for an Argument:

Evidence or Reasons: It must contain at least one statement claiming to provide
evidence or reasons.
Claim of Support: There should be a claim that this evidence supports or implies
something, meaning something follows from the evidence.

3. Premises and Conclusion:

- The evidence or reasons are called "premises."
- The statement the evidence supports is the "conclusion."
4. Focus on the Second Condition:
- We pay most attention to whether the evidence actually supports the
conclusion.
- We call this the "inferential claim," and it's an objective feature of the
argument, not the arguer's intention.

5. Explicit and Implicit Inferential Claims:

- Explicit: Some words indicate an inference, like "thus," "since," "because,"
"hence," or "therefore."
- Example: "Thus, mad cow disease poses a threat."
- Implicit: Even without indicator words, if it's clear something is being inferred
from the statements, it's still an argument.
- Example: "Genetic modification is risky; it can introduce toxic changes."
So, an argument is like a mini-case where someone tries to prove something with
evidence. We check if the evidence really supports their point, whether it's stated
directly or indirectly.
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1. Detecting Arguments:
- To find an argument, look for two things:
- **Indicator Words**: Words like "since," "because," "therefore," which often
signal an argument.
- **Inferential Relationship**: Check if it's clear that one statement is being
supported by others.

*2. Caution on Indicator Words:**

- Just because you see an indicator word doesn't mean it's an argument.
- Example: "Since Edison invented the phonograph, there have been many
technological developments." Here, "since" is used to show a time sequence, not
an argument.
- In contrast, "Since Edison invented the phonograph, he deserves credit for a
major technological development" is an argument because "since" is used to
show a logical relationship.

**3. Inferential Relationship Can Be Tricky:**

- Sometimes it's not obvious if there's an inferential link between statements.
- To help, mentally insert the word "therefore" before each statement and see if
it makes sense.
- Deciding whether there's an inferential relationship often involves
interpretation, and not everyone may agree on every passage.

**4. Types of Nonarguments:**

- Besides arguments, there are other types of passages:
 - **Simple Noninferential Passages**: Statements that aren't trying to prove
anything.
- **Expository Passages**: Passages that provide information without arguing.
- **Illustrations**: Examples given to clarify, not prove a point.
- **Explanations**: Clarifying how something works, not arguing for it.
- **Conditional Statements**: "If-then" statements, which set conditions, not
arguments.
So, when reading, watch for those key signs of arguments, but remember, not
everything you read is trying to persuade you of something.
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**1. Expository Passages:**

- Expository passages start with a topic sentence.
- Then, they have one or more sentences that expand on or explain that topic.
- They're not trying to prove the topic; they're just providing more information
about it.

**2. Examples of Expository Passages:**

- Example 1: "There are three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas..."
- Example 2: "In baseball, each player develops a unique style..."

**3. Expository vs. Argument:**

- Expository passages don't have an inferential claim. They're not trying to
persuade you of something.
- However, some expository passages can also be arguments if they try to prove
the topic sentence.

**4. Identifying Expository Arguments:**

- To figure out if an expository passage is an argument, look at whether the
additional sentences are just explaining the topic or also trying to prove it.
 - If the topic sentence states something most people already agree with, it's
likely not an argument.
- But if the topic sentence makes a claim that many people don't agree with, the
passage might be an argument.

**5. When in Doubt:**

- If you can't decide, you can treat the passage as an argument.
- In this case, the first sentence is the conclusion, and the others are the
premises.
In essence, expository passages usually explain a topic without trying to convince
you of anything. However, sometimes they do try to persuade, especially if
they're discussing something not everyone agrees with. When unsure, you can
treat them as arguments, with the first sentence as the main point and the rest as
supporting evidence.
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**1. What Are Illustrations?**

- Illustrations are examples used to explain what something means or how it's
done.
- They often include words like "thus" or "for example."

**2. Examples of Illustrations:**

- Example 1: "Chemical elements and compounds can be represented by
formulas. Thus, oxygen is represented by 'O2,' and water is 'H2O.'"
- Example 2: "Deciduous trees are those that lose their leaves in winter. For
example, maples, elms, poplars, hawthorns, and alders are deciduous."

**3. Illustrations vs. Arguments:**

- Most illustrations are not arguments because they don't try to prove
something.
- In the first example, "thus" shows how chemical formulas work.
- In the second, the examples clarify the meaning of "deciduous."
**4. Some Illustrations Can Be Arguments:**
- However, some illustrations can also be arguments. These are often called
"arguments from example."
- Example of an Argument from Example: "Not all cancers are life-threatening.
For instance, basal cell carcinoma, the most common skin cancer, rarely results in
death."
**5. How to Decide:**
- To determine if an illustration is an argument, check if it's trying to prove
something.
- If it's just showing how something works or what something means, it's likely
not an argument.
- If the claim being illustrated is something almost everyone accepts, it's
probably not an argument. People don't usually try to prove things everyone
already knows.
- However, if the claim is something not widely accepted or considered, then the
passage may be seen as an argument.
So, illustrations are often used to explain, not persuade. But if they're trying to
convince you of something, they become arguments, especially if it's about
something not everyone agrees on.
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**1. Conditional Statements:**

- A conditional statement is like an "if...then..." statement.
- For example: "If professional football games incite violence in the home, then
we should reconsider approving this sport."

**2. Parts of a Conditional Statement:**

- Every conditional statement has two parts:
- The part after "if" is called the "antecedent."
 - The part after "then" is called the "consequent."
- For example: In "If professional football games incite violence in the home,
then we should reconsider approving this sport," the antecedent is "Professional
football games incite violence in the home," and the consequent is "We should
reconsider approving this sport."

**3. Not Arguments:**

- Conditional statements are not arguments because they don't try to prove
anything.
- They don't make claims that their parts are true. They only say that if one part
is true, the other part is true too.

**4. Conditional Statements in Arguments:**

- While single conditional statements aren't arguments, they can be part of
arguments.
- For example: "If Sarah Palin loves shooting wolves from airplanes, then she has
little respect for wildlife," can be turned into an argument by stating: "Sarah Palin
loves shooting wolves from airplanes. Therefore, she has little respect for
wildlife."

**5. Sufficiency and Necessity:**

- Conditional statements are crucial because they help explain necessary and
sufficient conditions.
- Sufficiency: If something is sufficient for another, it means it's enough to
guarantee the other's occurrence. For example, being a dog is sufficient for being
an animal.
- Necessity: If something is necessary for another, it means the other can't
happen without it. For example, being an animal is necessary for being a dog.

**6. The Same Thing in Different Words:**

- The concepts of sufficiency and necessity can be expressed differently but
mean the same thing. For instance:
 - "If X is a dog, then X is an animal" means being a dog is sufficient for being an
animal.
- "If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog" means being an animal is necessary
for being a dog.
In simpler terms, conditional statements are like "if...then..." statements. They
don't prove anything on their own. They help us understand when something is
enough (sufficient) or needed (necessary) for something else to happen. These
ideas are important in logic and many other fields.