Seminar #4

1. General characteristics of the English verb.

The English verb is a fundamental part of the language and plays a crucial role in
constructing sentences. Here are some general characteristics of English verbs:

1. Action or State: English verbs can represent actions (e.g., run, eat, write) or
states (e.g., be, seem, love). Action verbs describe activities, while state verbs
describe conditions or states of being.

2. Tense: English verbs can be inflected to indicate different tenses, such as past
(e.g., walked), present (e.g., walk), and future (e.g., will walk). Tense is used to
indicate when an action or state occurs.

3. Agreement: English verbs agree with their subjects in terms of person and
number. This means that the form of the verb changes based on whether the
subject is singular or plural and whether it's in the first person (I/we), second
person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they). For example, "I walk" (singular)
and "They walk" (plural).

4. Mood: English verbs can also convey different moods, such as indicative (used
for statements and facts), imperative (used for commands), subjunctive (used for
hypotheticals or wishes), and conditional (used for situations dependent on a
condition).

5. Voice: English verbs can be in active voice (the subject performs the action) or
passive voice (the subject receives the action). For example, "She ate the cake"
(active) vs. "The cake was eaten by her" (passive).

6. Aspect: English verbs can have different aspects that indicate the nature or
duration of an action. Common aspects include simple (e.g., "I write"), continuous
(e.g., "I am writing"), perfect (e.g., "I have written"), and perfect continuous (e.g.,
"I have been writing").

7. Infinitive: The base form of an English verb is the infinitive, which is usually
preceded by "to" (e.g., "to eat," "to go"). Infinitives are used in various ways, such
as to express purpose, obligation, or desire.
8. Irregular Verbs: English has a number of irregular verbs that do not follow
regular conjugation patterns. These verbs have unique forms for their past tense
and past participle, and they must be memorized (e.g., "go," "be," "have").

9. Gerunds and Participles: Verbs can also function as gerunds (verbal nouns, e.g.,
"I enjoy swimming") and participles (used in verb tenses, e.g., "The baked bread").

10. Modal Verbs: English has modal verbs (e.g., can, could, will, would, should,
must) that express various degrees of necessity, possibility, or ability and are used
with other verbs to modify their meaning.

These characteristics collectively make English verbs versatile and essential for
constructing sentences with various meanings and nuances. Understanding these
aspects of verbs is crucial for effective communication in English.

2. Semantic classification of verbs. Grammatically relevant classes of verbs

in accordance with their grammatical meaning.
Semantic classification of verbs groups verbs into categories based on their
grammatical meaning or the types of actions or events they describe. These
categories help us understand how verbs function in sentences and the
relationships between different verbs. While there are various ways to classify
verbs semantically, here are some of the grammatically relevant classes of verbs:

1. **Action Verbs (Dynamic Verbs)**:

- **Transitive Verbs**: These verbs require a direct object to complete their
meaning. For example, "She eats **apples**."
- **Intransitive Verbs**: These verbs do not require a direct object. For
example, "He sleeps."
- **Ditransitive Verbs**: These verbs require both a direct and an indirect
object. For example, "She gave **him** a book."

2. **Stative Verbs (State Verbs)**:

 - These verbs describe states, conditions, or feelings rather than actions. They
are often not used in continuous (progressive) tenses. For example, "I know,"
"She loves him."

3. **Modal Verbs**:
- These verbs express modality, indicating necessity, possibility, permission,
ability, or probability. Common modal verbs include can, could, may, might, shall,
should, will, would, must.

4. **Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs)**:

- These verbs assist in forming verb tenses, questions, negatives, and other
grammatical constructions. Common auxiliary verbs include be, have, do.

5. **Phrasal Verbs**:
- These are verbs combined with one or more particles (prepositions or adverbs)
to create new meanings. For example, "She **looked up** the word."

6. **Causative Verbs**:
- These verbs indicate that someone or something causes an action to happen.
For example, "He **made** her cry."

7. **Modal Auxiliary Verbs**:

- These verbs express the speaker's attitude, obligation, or possibility. Examples
include can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

8. **Factitive Verbs**:
- These verbs describe the process of causing something to become something
else. For example, "They **painted** the room **blue**."

9. **Perceptive Verbs**:
- These verbs relate to sensory perception, such as see, hear, smell, taste, and
feel. For example, "She **saw** the sunset."

10. **Cognitive Verbs**:

- These verbs are related to mental processes like thinking, knowing, believing,
and understanding. For example, "He **believes** in ghosts."
11. **Psychological Verbs**:
- These verbs describe emotional or psychological states, such as love, hate,
fear, and desire. For example, "She **loves** chocolate."

12. **Verbs of Communication**:

- These verbs involve conveying information or ideas, such as say, tell, ask, and
explain. For example, "He **said** hello."

13. **Verbs of Perception and Appearance**:

- These verbs describe how something appears or is perceived, such as seem,
appear, look, sound, and taste. For example, "The cake **looks** delicious."

14. **Verbs of Motion**:

- These verbs describe various forms of movement, including run, walk, swim,
and fly. For example, "She **ran** to catch the bus."

15. **Verbs of Creation**:

- These verbs describe the act of creating or producing something, such as
build, create, make, and construct. For example, "He **built** a house."

16. **Verbs of Possession**:

- These verbs indicate ownership or possession, such as have, own, possess,
and belong. For example, "They **have** a car."

These are some of the common semantic categories of verbs in English.

Understanding these categories can be helpful for both learners and writers in
selecting the right verb for conveying specific meanings and nuances in sentences.
3. Modality and ways of its expression in English.
Modality in English refers to the grammatical and linguistic means by which
speakers convey their attitude, degree of certainty, necessity, obligation,
permission, ability, and probability regarding an action or event. Modality can be
expressed in various ways in English:

1. **Modal Verbs**: Modal verbs are a group of auxiliary verbs used to express
modality. They include:
 - **Can**: Indicates ability, possibility, or permission. Example: "She can swim."
- **Could**: Often used for polite requests and to express a past ability or
possibility. Example: "Could you pass the salt?"
- **May**: Indicates permission or possibility. Example: "You may leave early."
- **Might**: Suggests a lower degree of probability than "may." Example: "It
might rain tomorrow."
- **Must**: Indicates necessity, obligation, or strong probability. Example: "You
must study for the test."
- **Shall**: Often used to make suggestions or offers in first-person questions.
Example: "Shall we go to the movies?"
- **Should**: Suggests advice, recommendation, or obligation. Example: "You
should eat your vegetables."
- **Will**: Indicates future certainty or willingness. Example: "I will meet you at
3 PM."
- **Would**: Often used for polite requests and to express future in the past.
Example: "Would you like some coffee?"

2. **Modal Phrases**:
- Modality can also be expressed through phrases such as "have to," "need to,"
"ought to," "had better," and "would rather." These phrases convey varying
degrees of necessity, obligation, or preference. Example: "You have to finish your
homework."

3. **Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases**:

- Certain adverbs and adverbial phrases can convey modality:
- **Certainly, definitely, surely**: Indicate a high degree of certainty. Example:
"She will certainly pass the exam."
- **Possibly, maybe, perhaps**: Indicate possibility or uncertainty. Example: "I
may come to the party."
- **Probably, likely**: Indicate a high degree of probability. Example: "It will
probably rain tomorrow."

4. **Modal Adjectives**:
- Some adjectives, like "certain," "possible," "necessary," and "likely," can
express modality when used to modify nouns. Example: "It's a certain fact."
5. **The Subjunctive Mood**:
- The subjunctive mood is used to express wishes, suggestions, doubts, or
hypothetical situations. It often involves the base form of the verb and is used
with certain verbs and expressions. Example: "I wish he were here."

6. **Conditional Sentences**:
- Conditional sentences are used to express modality regarding hypothetical
situations. They consist of an "if" clause and a main clause. Example: "If it rains,
we will stay home."

7. **Question Tags**:
- Question tags (e.g., "isn't it," "won't you") are short phrases added to the end
of statements to seek agreement or confirmation. They can convey modality by
suggesting the speaker's attitude or expectation.

8. **Infinitive of Purpose**:
- The infinitive form of a verb is often used to express the purpose or intention
behind an action. Example: "I went to the store to buy groceries."

9. **Polite Forms**:
- Politeness markers such as "please" and "would" in requests, as well as
indirect speech acts, are forms of expressing modality in a polite manner.

Understanding the various ways of expressing modality in English is essential for

effective communication, as it helps convey nuances of meaning and
interpersonal relationships in language.
4. The category of tense, its correlation with the objective category of time.
Different views on the tense system in English.
Tense is a grammatical category in English and many other languages that relates
to the timing of actions, events, or states described by verbs. It indicates when an
action or event occurs, whether in the past, present, or future. Tense is closely
related to the objective category of time, but it's important to note that tense and
time are not the same. Tense is a linguistic concept, while time is a real-world
concept. The correlation between tense and time can be complex, and different
views exist on how the tense system in English functions.
Here are some key points to consider regarding the correlation between tense
and time in English:

1. **Past, Present, and Future Tenses**:

- English has three primary tenses: past, present, and future.
- Past tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that occurred in the
past.
- Present tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that are happening
in the present.
- Future tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that will happen in
the future.

2. **Absolute vs. Relative Time**:

- Absolute time refers to the actual time when an event occurs, which can be
specified with expressions like "yesterday," "today," or "tomorrow."
- Relative time refers to the time as it relates to other events or points in a
narrative. For example, in reported speech, the tense may shift to indicate
relative time, even if the absolute time remains the same.

3. **Views on the Tense System in English**:

- Traditional View: The traditional view of English grammar considers English to
have a straightforward tense system with past, present, and future tenses. Each
tense is associated with specific time frames.

- Present-Only View: Some linguists argue that English has only one true tense,
which is the present tense. They argue that what is often referred to as "past" and
"future" tenses are actually formed using auxiliary verbs like "have" and "will"
along with the base form of the main verb. In this view, English primarily marks
aspect (e.g., simple, continuous, perfect) rather than tense.

- Tense-Aspect View: Many linguists prefer a tense-aspect view, which

recognizes that English has a complex system involving tense and aspect. Aspect
refers to how the action or event is portrayed in terms of its completion,
duration, or repetition (e.g., simple, continuous, perfect). Tense, in this view,
primarily indicates when an action or event occurs in relation to the present
moment.
4. **Use of Time Expressions**: In English, time expressions (e.g., yesterday, now,
next week) are often used in conjunction with verb tenses to clarify the temporal
context. These expressions help bridge the gap between tense and absolute time.

5. **Sequence of Tenses**: In complex sentences, the sequence of tenses can be

important. This means that the tense used in one part of a sentence can influence
the choice of tense in another part, especially in reported speech or indirect
statements.

In summary, the relationship between tense and time in English is a subject of

debate among linguists. While traditional grammar recognizes three primary
tenses, some linguists argue for a present-only view or emphasize the role of
aspect. The use of time expressions and the context within sentences are
essential for understanding the temporal relationships conveyed by verbs in
English.
5. The category of aspect. Aspect and manner of action. Aspect opposition and
aspect markers.
The category of aspect in language, including English, is concerned with how
actions or events are portrayed in terms of their internal structure, duration,
completion, or repetition. Aspect is distinct from tense, which indicates when an
action occurs, and mood, which expresses modality. Aspect provides additional
information about the nature or manner of an action or event. Aspect is a
grammatical category, and it can be represented through aspect opposition and
aspect markers.

**Aspect Opposition:**
Aspect opposition involves contrasting aspects to convey different nuances of the
action or event. English primarily uses two aspects: simple and continuous
(progressive). These aspects are often in opposition to each other.

1. **Simple Aspect**: The simple aspect is used to describe actions or events as a

single, whole unit without focusing on their internal structure. It is often used for
general statements, habitual actions, and simple facts.
- Example: "She sings."
2. **Continuous (Progressive) Aspect**: The continuous aspect, also known as
the progressive aspect, emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action or event. It
describes actions that are in progress or occurring over a period of time.
- Example: "She is singing."

Aspect opposition can convey differences in how the action is viewed. For
example, "She sings" suggests that she sings as a general habit, while "She is
singing" implies that she is in the process of singing right now.

**Aspect Markers:**
Aspect markers are linguistic elements that indicate the aspect of a verb. In
English, aspect is often marked using auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) in conjunction
with the base form of the main verb. Here are some common aspect markers in
English:

1. **Present Simple Aspect**: The base form of the main verb is used with the
auxiliary verb "do" to create the present simple aspect.
- Example: "I do enjoy reading."

2. **Past Simple Aspect**: The base form of the main verb is used with the
auxiliary verb "did" to create the past simple aspect.
- Example: "They did visit the museum."

3. **Present Continuous Aspect**: The auxiliary verb "be" (conjugated according

to the subject) is used with the base form of the main verb with the "-ing" suffix
to create the present continuous aspect.
- Example: "She is studying."

4. **Past Continuous Aspect**: The past tense form of the auxiliary verb "be" is
used with the base form of the main verb with the "-ing" suffix to create the past
continuous aspect.
- Example: "They were playing tennis."

5. **Present Perfect Aspect**: The auxiliary verb "have" (conjugated according to

the subject) is used with the past participle of the main verb to create the present
perfect aspect.
 - Example: "I have finished my homework."

6. **Past Perfect Aspect**: The past tense form of the auxiliary verb "have" is
used with the past participle of the main verb to create the past perfect aspect.
- Example: "She had already left when I arrived."

Aspect markers allow speakers and writers to convey specific information about
the nature and duration of actions or events. The choice of aspect can affect how
the action is perceived in terms of its completeness, continuity, or point in time.
6. The problem of perfect.
The problem of the perfect tense, often referred to as the "perfect aspect," is a
complex issue in English grammar. It involves understanding the various ways the
perfect aspect is used and the subtleties associated with its usage. Here are some
key aspects of the problem of the perfect in English:

1. **Definition of the Perfect Aspect**:

- The perfect aspect is used to describe actions or states that are completed
with respect to a certain point in time, often emphasizing their relevance to the
present or another specific time.
- In English, the perfect aspect is typically formed using the auxiliary verb "have"
(in different tenses) followed by the past participle of the main verb (e.g., "have
eaten," "had gone").

2. **Present Perfect vs. Past Perfect**:

- English has two primary forms of the perfect aspect: the present perfect and
the past perfect.
- **Present Perfect**: This form is used to indicate actions or states that were
completed at some point in the past and have relevance to the present. For
example, "I have finished my homework" suggests that the homework was
completed in the past, but the fact of its completion is relevant now.
- **Past Perfect**: This form is used to indicate actions or states that were
completed before a specific point in the past. It emphasizes the order of events.
For example, "She had already left when I arrived" indicates that her departure
occurred before my arrival.

3. **Past Participles and the Perfect**:

 - English past participles are often used in perfect constructions, but they can
also be used in passive voice constructions. This duality of usage can sometimes
create ambiguity.
- For example, "The cake is eaten" can be interpreted as "The cake has been
eaten" (perfect aspect) or "The cake is being eaten" (passive voice).

4. **Present Perfect vs. Simple Past**:

- One common issue learners of English face is choosing between the present
perfect and the simple past tense. The choice often depends on the speaker's
intended emphasis on the timing and relevance of the action.
- **Present Perfect**: Emphasizes the connection between a past action and
the present moment. It is used for recent actions, past actions with present
consequences, and when the specific time of the action is not important.
- **Simple Past**: Emphasizes the completion of a past action at a specific point
in time. It is used when the time of the action is important or when the action is
seen as isolated from the present.

5. **Use of Time Expressions**:

- The choice between different perfect tenses and simple tenses often depends
on the presence of time expressions that specify when the action occurred or its
relevance to a specific time.
- Time expressions like "since," "for," "already," "just," and "recently" often
signal the use of the present perfect.

6. **Stative Verbs and the Perfect Aspect**:

- The use of the perfect aspect with stative verbs (verbs that describe states
rather than actions) can be tricky. Some stative verbs are rarely used in the
perfect aspect, while others can be used in both simple and perfect forms, often
with different meanings.

In summary, the problem of the perfect in English involves understanding the

nuances of the present perfect and past perfect tenses, as well as making choices
between these tenses and simple past tense based on the intended emphasis and
context. Mastery of the perfect aspect requires a good grasp of the relationships
between time, completion, and relevance in English sentences.