1.

The structure of a sentence in English

2. Constituency tests (wh-question, substitution)

3. The subject and the predicate of a sentence (meaning, identification tests)
4. Structural ambiguity

5. Phrase structure rules

6. Syntactic categories (lexical and non-lexical) and phrasal categories

7. Nouns and Noun Phrases in English

8. Adjectives and Adjective Phrases in English

9. Adverbs and Adverb Phrases in English

10. Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases in English

11. Subcategories of verbs in English (monotransitive, intransitive, ditransitive, intensive,

complextransitive, prepositional/diprepositional)
12. The structure of Verb Phrases
13. Auxiliaries (types, order, and place within the structure of the sentence)
14. Passive sentences
15. Adverbials (types and properties of adjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts)
16. Complex sentences (finite and non-finite clauses)
17. Semantics – the study of meaning in language
Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in language.
It focuses on understanding how words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of
language convey meaning and how people interpret and understand that meaning.
Semantics explores the relationship between linguistic signs, such as words and
symbols, and the concepts, objects, or ideas they represent.
1. **Word Meaning:** Semantics investigates the meanings of individual words. It
considers both denotative (literal) and connotative (associated or implied) meanings.
2. **Sentence Meaning:** Semantics looks at how the meanings of words combine to
form the meaning of a sentence. It explores how sentence structure and word order
contribute to the interpretation of a statement.
3. **Ambiguity:** Semantics addresses linguistic ambiguity, which occurs when a word
or phrase has multiple meanings. It explores how context helps resolve ambiguities in
communication.
4. **Reference and Referent:** Semantics examines how words and expressions refer
to real-world entities or concepts. Reference is the relationship between language and
the world it represents.
5. **Sense and Reference:** The study of sense (the meaning of a word within a
language system) and reference (the relationship between a word and the external
world) is crucial in semantics.
6. **Pragmatics:** While semantics focuses on meaning within the linguistic system,
pragmatics considers how context, social factors, and the speaker's intentions
influence meaning in communication.
7. **Meaning Change:** Semantics also investigates how the meanings of words and
expressions can change over time due to various factors such as cultural shifts, societal
changes, or linguistic evolution.

18. Sense relations between words (hyperonymy-hyponymy, holonymy-partonymy,

homonymy, homophony, polysemy, synonymy, antonymy)
Sense relations between words are associations or connections that exist based on
their meanings.
1. **Hypernymy-Hyponymy: **

- **Hypernym:** A word that represents a broader or more general category.

- **Hyponym: ** A word that falls under a more specific category within the broader
one.

- *Example: * Animal (hypernym) - Dog, Cat, Bird (hyponyms)

2. **Holonymy-Partonymy:**

- **Holonym:** A word that represents the whole or the entirety.

 - **Partonym:** A word that represents a part or a component of the whole.

- *Example:* Tree (holonym) - Trunk, Branch, Leaf (partonyms)

3. **Homonymy:**

- **Homonym:** Words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but different
meanings.

- *Example:* Bat (flying mammal) and Bat (used in sports)

4. **Homophony:**

- **Homophones:** Words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings
and often different spellings.

- *Example:* "bare" and "bear"

5. **Polysemy:**

- **Polysemy:** A single word having multiple related meanings.

- *Example:* "Bank" can refer to a financial institution or the side of a river.

6. **Synonymy:**

- **Synonym:** Words that have similar meanings.

- *Example:* Big and Large

7. **Antonymy:**

- **Antonym:** Words that have opposite meanings.

- *Example:* Hot and Cold

19. Figurative language and figures of speech

Figurative language involves the use of words or expressions in a way that deviates from
their literal or ordinary meanings to create a more vivid, imaginative, or expressive effect.
Figures of speech are specific forms of figurative language that employ distinctive
patterns of words or phrases to convey meaning in a more creative and impactful
manner.
1. **Simile:**

- *Definition:* A comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as."

- *Example:* "Brave as a lion."

2. **Metaphor:**

- *Definition:* A direct comparison between two unrelated things, suggesting that they
are alike in some way.

- *Example:* "Time is a thief."

3. **Personification:**

- *Definition:* Giving human qualities or characteristics to non-human entities or

abstract concepts.

- *Example:* "The wind whispered through the trees."

4. **Hyperbole:**

- *Definition:* Exaggerating or overstating for emphasis.

- *Example:* "I've told you a million times."

5. **Understatement:**

- *Definition:* Downplaying or minimizing the significance of something for rhetorical

effect.

- *Example:* "It's just a scratch" after a major accident.

6. **Irony:**

- *Definition:* A figure of speech where the intended meaning is opposite to the literal
meaning.

- *Example:* Saying "What a great day!" during a heavy rainstorm.

7. **Alliteration:**

- *Definition:* The repetition of initial consonant sounds in nearby words.

- *Example:* "She sells seashells by the seashore."

8. **Onomatopoeia:**

- *Definition:* Words that imitate the sound they represent.

- *Example:* "Buzz," "hiss," or "clang."

9. **Oxymoron:**

- *Definition:* Combining contradictory terms for a paradoxical effect.

- *Example:* "Deafening silence."

10. **Cliché:**

- *Definition:* An overused expression or idea that has lost its originality.

- *Example:* "As old as the hills."

20. The theory of conceptual metaphor and metonymy

Conceptual metaphor and metonymy are cognitive linguistic theories that explore how
people use metaphorical and metonymic expressions to understand and conceptualize
abstract concepts.
1. **Conceptual Metaphor:**
 - *Definition:* Conceptual metaphor involves understanding one conceptual domain
in terms of another. It suggests that many abstract or complex ideas are structured and
understood through metaphorical mappings from more concrete and familiar domains.
- *Example:* The metaphor "Time is Money" conceptualizes the abstract concept of
time in terms of the more concrete and familiar concept of money, implying that time,
like money, should be spent wisely or invested.
- **Basic Elements:**

- **Source Domain:** The more concrete or familiar domain used to understand the
abstract or less familiar target domain.

- **Target Domain:** The abstract or less familiar domain that is understood in terms
of the source domain.

- **Key Concepts:**

- **Embodiment:** The idea that metaphorical concepts are grounded in our bodily
experiences.

- **Systematicity:** The existence of systematic patterns in the way metaphorical

mappings are used across different languages and cultures.

2. **Conceptual Metonymy:**

- *Definition:* Conceptual metonymy involves understanding a concept by

emphasizing a part of it, a closely related concept, or something associated with it.
Unlike metaphor, which involves mapping between different conceptual domains,
metonymy operates within a single domain.

- *Example:* Using "The White House issued a statement" to refer to the President of
the United States and their administration, where the building (part of the concept) is
used to represent the whole.
- **Types of Metonymy:**

- **Part-Whole:** Referring to a whole by mentioning one of its parts.

- **Cause-Effect:** Referring to a cause to represent its effect, or vice versa.

- **Container-Content:** Referring to a container to represent its contents.

- **Role in Thought:**

- Metonymy is seen as a fundamental cognitive process, influencing how we think

about and understand the world.
21. Taboo in culture and language
Taboos refer to social or cultural prohibitions against certain behaviors, practices, or
words due to their perceived offensiveness, impropriety, or violation of societal norms.
Taboos vary across cultures and can be related to various aspects of life, including
behavior, language, and symbolism.
1. **Cultural Taboos:**

- Cultural taboos are norms or prohibitions specific to a particular society or

community.

- Examples include restrictions on certain foods, rituals, relationships, or behaviors

considered culturally inappropriate.
2. **Language Taboos:**

- Language taboos involve words or expressions that are considered offensive, vulgar,
or inappropriate in a given culture.

- Taboo language often relates to topics such as sex, bodily functions, religious beliefs,
or social status.
3. **Reasons for Taboos:**

- **Cultural Values:** Taboos often reflect a society's values, morals, and beliefs.

- **Social Harmony:** Taboos can contribute to social order and harmony by defining
boundaries and expectations.

- **Religious Beliefs:** Many taboos are rooted in religious doctrines or cultural

traditions.

- **Protecting Individuals or Groups:** Taboos may be established to protect

individuals, groups, or societal structures.
4. **Impact on Language:**

- Taboos influence linguistic expressions, leading to the creation of euphemisms or

alternative words to avoid direct mention of taboo subjects.

- Speakers may develop various strategies to discuss sensitive topics without violating
cultural norms.
5. **Euphemisms:**

- Euphemisms are milder, less direct expressions used to replace taboo words or
phrases.

- They serve as a way to discuss sensitive topics while adhering to cultural norms.

- Example: Using "passed away" instead of "died."

6. **Cross-Cultural Variation:**
 - Taboos can differ significantly between cultures, and what is considered taboo in one
culture may be acceptable or even normal in another.

- Awareness of these differences is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication.

7. **Evolution of Taboos:**

- Taboos may evolve over time due to changes in societal values, cultural norms, or
external influences.

- Certain behaviors or words that were once taboo may become more accepted, and
vice versa.
8. **Social Consequences:**

- Violating taboos can lead to social stigma, ostracism, or legal consequences.

- Adherence to taboos is often seen as a way to maintain social cohesion and avoid
disruption.

22. Euphemisms and dysphemisms

Euphemisms and dysphemisms are two contrasting linguistic phenomena used to
soften or intensify the impact of language, particularly when discussing sensitive or
taboo subjects.
1. **Euphemisms:**

- *Definition:* Euphemisms are mild or indirect expressions used to substitute harsh,

blunt, or socially sensitive words or phrases. They are employed to convey information in
a more polite, inoffensive, or less direct manner.

- *Purpose:* Euphemisms often aim to mitigate the potential discomfort, offense, or

emotional impact associated with certain topics.

- *Examples:*

- "Passed away" instead of "died."

- "Let go" instead of "fired."

- "Correctional facility" instead of "prison."

2. **Dysphemisms:**

- *Definition:* Dysphemisms are the opposite of euphemisms. They involve using

harsh, blunt, or offensive language instead of a neutral or polite expression.
Dysphemisms are often employed for rhetorical effect, emphasizing the negative
aspects of a situation or object.

- *Purpose:* Dysphemisms may be used to express disdain, criticism, or to shock and

provoke a reaction.
 - *Examples:*

- "Kick the bucket" instead of "die."

- "Dump" instead of "end a relationship."

- "Rat" instead of "informant" or "snitch."

23. Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context

Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in context,
focusing on how language is used in real-life situations and the ways in which context
influences the interpretation of communication. Unlike semantics, which is concerned
with the meaning of words and sentences in isolation, pragmatics examines how
meaning is constructed through interaction, considering the speaker's intentions, the
listener's inferences, and the social and cultural context.
1. **Speech Act Theory:**

- Pragmatics examines speech acts, which are communicative actions performed

through language. Utterances not only convey information but also serve functions such
as making requests, giving commands, offering promises, or expressing opinions.
2. **Deixis:**

- Deixis refers to words (like pronouns, demonstratives, and time expressions) whose
interpretation depends on the context of the utterance. For example, the meaning of
"this" or "here" depends on what is present or where the speaker is pointing at that
moment.
3. **Implicature:**

- Pragmatics studies implicature, which involves conveying meaning indirectly. It

explores how speakers imply information beyond the literal meaning of their words, and
how listeners infer this additional meaning based on context.
4. **Presupposition:**

- Presupposition refers to assumptions that speakers make about what their listeners
already know or believe. Pragmatics examines how presuppositions influence
communication and shape the way information is presented.
5. **Politeness:**

- Pragmatics considers politeness strategies and how speakers use language to

maintain social harmony and avoid face-threatening acts. This involves analyzing how
speakers mitigate requests, give feedback, and express disagreement.
6. **Conversational Maxims:**

- Pragmatics explores the Gricean conversational maxims, proposed by philosopher

H.P. Grice. These maxims include the principles of quantity, quality, relation, and
manner, which guide effective communication in conversations.
7. **Context and Reference:**

- Pragmatics emphasizes the importance of context in understanding references in

language. The meaning of words or expressions can change based on the surrounding
context and shared knowledge between the speaker and the listener.
8. **Cultural and Societal Influences:**

- Pragmatics acknowledges that communication is shaped by cultural and societal

norms. Different cultures may have distinct pragmatic conventions, leading to variations
in language use.

24. The theory of speech acts

The theory of speech acts, developed by philosopher J.L. Austin and later expanded by
John Searle, is a key component of pragmatics. It focuses on the idea that when people
use language, they are not just conveying information but are also performing various
actions. Speech acts involve the use of language to perform actions or functions beyond
the simple expression of meaning. Austin introduced the theory in his work "How to Do
Things with Words," and Searle later expanded and formalized it.
1. **Locutionary Act:**

- This refers to the basic act of producing sounds or written symbols that form a
meaningful utterance. It is the act of saying something with a certain grammatical
structure and meaning.
2. **Illocutionary Act:**

- The illocutionary act is the speaker's intention or purpose in making a particular

utterance. It involves the speaker performing a specific act by uttering words, such as
making a request, giving a command, making a promise, stating a fact, expressing an
opinion, etc.
3. **Perlocutionary Act:**

- The perlocutionary act is the effect or impact that the speaker's words have on the
listener or the audience. It is the response or behavior that the speaker intends to
provoke in the listener by making a particular utterance.

Speech acts are further classified into various types based on their illocutionary force,
which represents the speaker's intention in making the utterance. Some common
illocutionary acts include:
- **Assertives:** Making statements or conveying information (e.g., stating, claiming).

- **Directives:** Giving commands or making requests (e.g., ordering, asking).

- **Commissives:** Making commitments or promises (e.g., pledging, vowing).

- **Expressives:** Expressing emotions or attitudes (e.g., apologizing, congratulating).

- **Declarations:** Bringing about a change in the external world by the act of speaking
(e.g., pronouncing someone married, resigning).