1.

The Present Perfect tense is used to describe actions or events that started in the past and
continue up to the present moment or have just been completed. It is often used to express
experiences, changes, or results that have a connection to the present. For example, "I have
studied English for five years." The Present Perfect Continuous tense, on the other hand, is used
to describe an action that started in the past and continues up to the present moment. It is
often used to emphasize the duration of an action or situation. For example, "I have been
studying English for five years."

2. The Past Perfect tense is used to describe an action that happened before another action in the
past. It is often used to show the sequence of events in the past. For example, "I had finished my
homework before my friends arrived." The Past Perfect Continuous tense, on the other hand, is
used to describe an action that started in the past and continued up to a point in the past. It is
often used to emphasize the duration of an action that was interrupted by another event. For
example, "I had been studying English for two hours when my friend called."

3. Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs used to express different degrees of possibility, ability,
permission, obligation, or suggestion. The most common modal verbs in English are can, could,
may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would. For example, "I can speak English fluently."

4. The Present Simple tense is used to describe a habitual or repeated action, a general truth or
fact, or a future event that is scheduled or timetabled. For example, "I go to the gym every day."
The Present Continuous tense, on the other hand, is used to describe an action that is in
progress at the moment of speaking or a temporary situation. For example, "I am exercising
right now."

Stative verbs, also called non-continuous verbs, are verbs that express a state, feeling, or condition
rather than an action. They are not usually used in the Present Continuous tense. For example, "I believe
in myself."

5. The Past Simple tense is used to describe a completed action or event in the past. For example,
"I visited my grandmother yesterday."

6. Too and enough are used to describe quantity or degree. Too is used to indicate excess or more
than necessary, while enough is used to indicate sufficiency or an adequate amount. For
example, "This cake is too sweet." "This cake is not sweet enough."

7. The Past Simple tense is used to describe a completed action or event in the past. For example,
"I visited my grandmother yesterday."

8. Direct speech refers to the reporting of someone's exact words, while indirect speech refers to
reporting someone's words in a more summarized or paraphrased form. Direct speech is often
introduced by a reporting verb such as "said" or "asked," while indirect speech requires a
change in tense and pronouns. For example, Direct: "I am going to the store," said Tom. Indirect:
Tom said that he was going to the store.

9. A gerund is a verb form that ends in "-ing" and functions as a noun in a sentence. It can be used
as the subject, object, or complement of a verb. For example, "Swimming is good exercise."

10. An infinitive is the base form of a verb with the word "to" in front of it. It can be used as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence. For example, "To learn English is my goal."

11. Relative pronouns are pronouns that are used to connect a dependent clause to a main clause in
a sentence. The most common relative pronouns in English are who, whom, whose, which, and
that. For example, "The person who won the lottery is very lucky."
12. The Future tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen in the future. There are
several ways to express the Future tense in English, including the use of will, be going to, and
the Present Continuous tense. For example, "I will study English tomorrow."

13. The Past Simple tense is formed by adding "-ed" to the base form of a regular verb, while
irregular verbs have their own unique forms. It is used to describe a completed action or event
in the past. For example, "I walked to school yesterday."

14. The Past Continuous tense is formed by using "was/were" and adding "-ing" to the base form of
the verb. It is used to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. For
example, "I was walking to school when it started raining."

15. Stative verbs, also called non-continuous verbs, are verbs that express a state, feeling, or
condition rather than an action. They are not usually used in the Present Continuous tense. For
example, "I believe in myself." The Present Continuous tense is formed by using "am/is/are" and
adding "-ing" to the base form of the verb. It is used to describe an action that is in progress at
the moment of speaking or a temporary situation. For example, "I am studying English right
now."

16. The Future tense can be expressed in several ways in English, including the use of will, be going
to, and the Present Continuous tense. For example, "I will study English tomorrow."

17. The Past Tenses in English include the Past Simple, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, and
the Past Perfect Continuous. They are used to describe actions or events that happened in the
past.

18. Sequence of Tenses refers to the rule that the tense of a subordinate clause in a sentence must
be in agreement with the tense of the main clause. For example, "He said that he is studying
English" is incorrect because the tense of the subordinate clause should be in the Past tense to
agree with the Past tense of the main clause: "He said that he was studying English."

19. Conditionals are sentences that express a condition and its result. There are four main types of
conditionals in English: Zero Conditional, First Conditional, Second Conditional, and Third
Conditional. They are used to describe hypothetical or imaginary situations, future events, or
general truths. For example, "If it rains, we will stay inside."

20. The Passive Voice is a grammatical construction in which the subject of a sentence is acted upon
rather than performing the action. It is formed by using a form of "to be" and the past participle
of the verb. For example, "The book was written by John."

21. Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted, such as "book" or "chair," while uncountable
nouns are nouns that cannot be counted, such as "water" or "money." They have different
grammatical rules and usage in English.

22. Literary translation refers to the translation of literary works, such as novels, poems, and plays,
while Machine translation refers to the use of computer software to translate text from one
language to another.

23. Ways of translation include literal translation, word-for-word translation, and descriptive
translation. Literal translation refers to a translation that preserves the exact words and
structure of the source language, while word-for-word translation refers to a translation that
translates each individual word of the source language without considering the idiomatic
expressions or grammar of the target language. Descriptive translation refers to a translation
that conveys the meaning and intention of the source text in a way that is natural and idiomatic
for the target language.
24. Word-for-word translation refers to a translation that translates each individual word of the
source language without considering the idiomatic expressions or grammar of the target
language. It can lead to awkward or incomprehensible translations.

25. The history of the development of translation can be traced back to ancient times, when
cultures would translate texts for political, cultural, or religious reasons. The development of
translation technology and the rise of globalization have led to an increased need for accurate
and efficient translation.

26. Verbal translation refers to the translation of spoken language, while written translation refers
to the translation of written text.

27. Translation is the process of converting text from one language to another, and is an important
subject in language and literature studies. It involves not only linguistic skills, but also cultural
and historical knowledge.

28. Translation has its own peculiarities, such as the need to accurately convey meaning, tone, and
style of the source text, while also being sensitive to the target culture and audience.
Translation also requires the ability to research and understand the subject matter of the source
text.

29. Translation is significant in modern society as it allows people from different cultures to
communicate and exchange ideas. Types of translation include literary translation, technical
translation, legal translation, and medical translation.

30. The characteristic features of translation include accuracy, clarity, cultural sensitivity, and
fluency in both the source and target languages. A good translation should be faithful to the
source text, while also being natural and idiomatic in the target language.

31. Verbal translation refers to the translation of spoken language, while descriptive translation
refers to a translation that conveys the meaning and intention of the source text in a way that is
natural and idiomatic for the target language.

32. Antonymic Descriptive translation refers to a translation that conveys the opposite meaning of
the source text, and is sometimes used for literary or artistic purposes.

33. Translation is significant for modern society as it allows people from different cultures to
communicate and exchange ideas, and is essential for global communication, commerce, and
diplomacy.

34. Kinds of translation include literary translation, technical translation, legal translation, and
medical translation. Each type of translation requires specific skills and knowledge related to the
subject matter and target audience.

35. Transliteration is the process of converting the characters of one writing system to another,
such as from the Cyrillic alphabet to the Latin alphabet. It is often used for names or terms that
do not have a direct translation in another language.