CHAPTER 1: PARTS OF SPEECH

Lesson 1: Noun

A noun is a part of speech that comprises words used to name individuals, places, objects, and
ideas. Nouns are basic to sentence structure because they, along with pronouns, provide the
subject of the sentence.

1.1. Kinds of Nouns

1. Common Noun
- the general, non-specific term for a person, place, object, or idea
- examples: sister, city, bag

2. Proper Noun
- a specific name for a particular person, place, object, or idea
- examples: Anna, Iloilo City, Louis Vuitton bag

3. Abstract Noun
- refers to intangible things (incapable of being perceived by the senses) like
ideas, feelings, qualities, and concepts
- examples: hatred, love, education

4. Concrete Noun
- identifies something material and tangible
- examples: steak, skin, whistling

5. Uncountable Noun
- a substance or concept that cannot be divided into separate elements
- examples: water, air, money

6. Compound Noun
- made up of two or more words
- examples: jailbreak, mother-in-law, heart attack

7. Collective Noun
- words that name a group of people or things as a single entity
- examples: family, collection, audience

8. Singular Noun
- refer to one person, place, or thing
- examples: boy, tooth, inch

9. Plural Noun
- refer to more than one person, place or thing
- examples: children, skies, oxen

SOURCES:

English Club. Noun

https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/noun-what.html

Study. What Are Nouns? Definition, Types and Examples

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-nouns-definition-types-examples.html

Grammarly. What Is A Noun?

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/nouns/

Slideshare. Types of Nouns

https://www.slideshare.net/selviraveendran/types-of-nouns-26893522

Grammar Monster. Nouns

https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/nouns.html

Lesson 2: Pronoun

A pronoun is a type of word that replaces a noun.

2.1. Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal Pronoun
- used as a substitute for the proper name of a person, animal, or object
A. Subject Pronouns – I, You, We, He, She, It, They
B. Object Pronouns – Me, You, Us, Him, Her, It, Them
example: She attended a virtual conference yesterday.

2. Possessive Pronoun
- used to express ownership or possession
- Mine, Ours, Yours, His, Hers, Its, Theirs
- example: The empty pots are theirs to plant.

3. Relative Pronoun
- used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun
- Who, Whose, Whom, Which, That
- example: The documents that were on my desk got wet.

4. Indefinite Pronoun
- used to replace a nonspecific noun
- Anyone, Everything, Both, Few, Many, All, None, Some
- example: Everything inside the store is for sale.

5. Interrogative Pronoun
- used to ask questions
- What, Which, Who, Whom, Whose
- example: What did he tell you?

6. Demonstrative Pronoun
- used to point out people or specific items
- This, That, These, Those
- example: This is my favorite shirt.

7. Reflexive Pronoun
 - used to refer to the subject of the sentence
- Myself, Yourself, Himself, Herself, Itself, Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves
- example: We need to believe in ourselves more.

8. Intensive Pronouns
- refer back to the subject of the sentence to emphasize it
- Myself, Yourself, Herself, Himself, Itself, Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves
- example: The children made the cookies themselves.
SOURCES:

Jennifer Gunner. (n.d.). What Is a Pronoun? Types, Definition, and Examples.

https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/pronouns/types-of-pronouns.html

Thesaurus. (2021). What Is A Possessive Pronoun? Definition And Examples.

https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/possessive-pronouns/

Thesaurus. (2020). What is a Pronoun? Types and Examples.

https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/what-are-the-types-of-pronouns/

The Albert Team. (2022). Personal Pronouns: Definitions, Examples, & Exercises.
https://www.albert.io/blog/personal-pronouns/

ProWritingAid. (n.d.). What is a Pronoun? Rules and Examples. https://prowritingaid.com/Pronouns

Lesson 3: Verb

A verb is an action word in a sentence that describes what the subject is doing.

3.1. Kinds of Verbs

1. Regular Verb
- the past and past participles are made by adding -d or -ed.
- example: Emily heated up her lunch in the oven.

2. Irregular Verb
- if the past tense is not formed by the -ed ending
- example: She rose from her seat after hearing the news.

3. Linking Verb
- this links the subject to a subject complement and this is also used to re-identify
or to describe its subject; do not express action
- examples: Jen is a star of the future. The soup tastes too garlicky to eat.

4. Transitive Verb
- an object is needed to complete itself
- example: Nia sings songs in the church choir.

5. Intransitive Verb
- does not require a direct object; follows the subject and completes an
independent clause
- to further contextualize the action of the verb, it may also be followed by
prepositions, adverbs, or another clause
- example: Nia sings in the shower each morning.
 6. Finite Verb
- define the time (past or present) and the subject
- often a group of words that include auxiliary verbs like: can, must, have, and be
- examples: The thief escaped again. He must be suffering.

7. Infinitive Verb
- the word ''to'' followed by a verb
- example: The third graders are planning to write a letter for their teacher.

3.2. The Mood of the Verb

1. Indicative Mood
- fact mood; used the most often; states, asks, or denies a fact
- can also express an opinion because opinions are often stated as facts
- Fact example: Mark fell down the stairs. Rain is falling
- Opinion example: Jeno thinks Nana will win the dance contest

2. Imperative Mood
- "bossy" mood; used to give commands, to advise, or to beg someone to do
something
- example: Close the window, please.

3. Subjunctive Mood
- verb tenses are used in special kinds of statements
- the most common use is in contrary‐to‐fact or hypothetical statements
- Present example: If I were to be president, I would gladly help you.
- Past example: If I was the president, I would have gladly helped you.

3.3. Aspects of Verbs

1. Simple Aspect or Indefinite Aspect

- the verb form used to express a fact.
- example: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean basin on Earth.

2. Perfect Aspect or Complete Aspect

- a verb that expresses a completed action
- example: She had drawn a beautiful painting.

3. Progressive Aspect or Continuing Aspect

- this aspect expresses an ongoing action
- example: The bird is eating the seeds.

4. Perfect Progressive Aspect or Perfect Continuing Aspect

- expresses the end of an ongoing action
- example: The spider has been eating small insects.

3.4. The Principal Forms of the Verb

1. Present Tense
- used to express present time, something that is true at all times, and future time
- examples: talk, move, adapt
 2. Present Participle
- used to form the progressive tenses (continuing action)
- formed by adding -ing to the singular verb
- preceded by a form of the “to be” helping verb
- examples: (is) talking, (am) moving, (is) adapting

3. Past Tense
- used to express past time; formed by adding -ed to regular verbs
- irregular verbs have different endings
- examples: talked, moved, adapted

4. Past Participle
- used to form the perfect tenses; preceded by a form of the have helping verb
- for regular verbs, the past and the past participle are the same

PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

talked (have) talked
moved (have) moved
adapted (have) adapted

SOURCES:

English grammar 101. Mood of Verbs

https://www.englishgrammar101.com/module-3/verbs-types-tenses-and-moods/lesson-15/moods-of-verbs

Cliff Notes. Moods of the Verbs

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/english/verb/moods-of-the-verb

Grammar Island. Four Principal Parts of Verbs

https://www.grammar-island.com/four-principal-parts-of-verbs.html

ExamPlanning. (2022). Types of Verbs. Retrieved from

https://examplanning.com/types-of-verbs-examples-list/

GrammarMonster. (n.d.). Aspects of a Verb. Retrieved from

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/aspect.htm l

GrammarMonster. (n.d.). Linking Verbs. Retrieved from

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/linking_verbs.htm l

Lesson 4: Adjective

Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing and speaking
much more specific, and a whole lot more interesting.

4.1. Kinds of Adjectives

1. Descriptive Adjective
- adjectives of quality
- examples: large, beautiful, careful
- Kolkota is a large city.

2. Numeral Adjective
 - show how many individuals or things are meant
- examples: several, few, many
- It took me several minutes to guess.

3. Quantitative Adjective
- show how much quantity of a thing is meant
- examples: some, much, little
- He was little.

4. Demonstrative Adjective
- used to describe “which” noun or pronoun is being referred to
- examples: this, that, those
- That is the man who broke in our house.

5. Interrogative Adjective
- used with nouns to ask questions
- examples: what, which, whose

6. Possessive Adjective
- used to indicate possession
- examples: our, your, his, her

7. Proper Adjective
- describe people, places and things; based on names and need to be capitalized
- examples: Indian tea, French wines, Turkish tobacco, etc.

8. Exclamatory Adjective
- show emotion, so it is used with a noun
- examples: what, how

9. Distributive Adjective
- used to single out one or more individual items or people
- examples: each, every, either

4.2. Structure and Position of Adjectives

An adjective can be placed before a noun (attributive), after a noun (postpositive), or in the
predicate (predicative).

Examples:
1. Attributive Adjectives - Dark evenings, mysterious events
2. Postpositive Adjectives - The sea is blue, the carrot is orange
3. Predicative Adjectives - He seems afraid of the dog.

4.3 The Order of Adjectives in a Series

The order of adjectives in a series is the customary order in which two or more adjectives
appear in front of a noun phrase.

Order of Adjectives
1. Determiner
2. Opinion
 3. Size
4. Physical Quality
5. Shape
6. Age
7. Color
8. Origin
9. Material
10. Type
11. Purpose
12. Noun

Examples:
1. It was made of a strange (1), green (6), metallic (8) material.
2. It is a long (2), narrow (4), plastic (8) brush.

SOURCES:

Career Power. Adjective Definition and Types/ Kinds with Examples.

https://www.careerpower.in/adjective.html#:~:text=There%20are%20a%20total%20of,Proper
%20adjective%2C%20and%20Exclamatory%20adjective.

Ginger. (2022). Adjectives. https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/adjectives/

Geikhman, Y. (2022). The Essentials of English Adjectives: 7 Key Adjective Types to Know. FluentU.
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/english/english-adjectives/

Lesson 5: Adverb

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; often helps answer
the question how, when, where, and often ends in -ly.

5.1. Common Adverbs

There are several types of adverbs but the most common adverbs are conjunctive adverbs.
Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect two clauses or two sentences together.

Examples:

I went to the store to buy new shoes. However, the store was already closed when I got there.
Christine wasn’t too confident about her answers; nevertheless, she passed the exam easily.

5.2. Comparison of Adverbs

There are three degrees of comparison in adverbs. The positive form is used to describe an
action, the comparative form is used to compare one action to another, while the superlative
form is used to compare one action to two or more actions.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Fast Faster Fastest
Long Longer Longest
5.3. Kinds of Adverbs According to Function

1. Simple Adverb
- generally used in simple declarative sentences; define the quality of their verb
- example: I am visiting my grandmother this weekend.

2. Interrogative Adverb
- generally used at the beginning of a sentence; why, when, where, and how
- example: How intense is the pain you feel in that knee?

3. Relative Adverb
- introduces an adjective clause; when, where, when, and why
- example: This is the house where I grew up.

5.4. Kinds of Adverbs According to Meaning

1. Adverb of Time
- describes when the action of a verb is carried out
- example: Samantha came here yesterday.

2. Adverb of Place
- describes the location or the place where an action is taking place
- example: I am sitting behind you.

3. Adverb of Frequency
- defines the frequency of occurrence of an event
- example: We go to Italy once a year.

4. Adverb of Manner
- describes how and in what way the action of verb is carried out
- example: After the rain, the ground quickly dried.

5. Adverb of Degree
- express the extent or degree of an action
- example: The price of stocks has increased enormously.

6. Adverb of Reason
- tells the reason behind the happening of particular occurrence
- example: I heard a weird noise, therefore, I called my mom.
SOURCES:

Grammarly. (2021, January 14). What is an adverb? Grammarly. Retrieved August 24, 2022,
from https://www.grammarly.com/blog/adverb/

Grade 4 let's talk comparison of adverbs in the English language. Gradely. (2021, April 6).
Retrieved August 24, 2022, from https://gradely.ng/english-language-basic-4-week-10-
comparison-of-adverbs/#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20degrees%20of,to%20two%20or
%20more%20actions

Dictionary.com. (2022, April 29). 6 types of adverbs used in the English language. Thesaurus.com.
Retrieved August 28, 2022, from https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/types-of-adverbs/?
fbclid=IwAR0ubvHzHSAQBQRZEwM7wT49MRZTrCwBRGYUB-OeAukEQeWISd0VZgWt6K4
Vedantu. (2022, April 27). Kinds of adverbs. VEDANTU. Retrieved August 24, 2022, from
https://www.vedantu.com/english/kinds-of-adverbs

Lesson 6: Preposition

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to
show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object.

Examples: in, at, on, of, to

6.1. A Preposition and Its Object

The prepositional object is the noun or pronoun that the preposition affects or describes. So, if
you were to say “the apple in the tree,” the word in is the preposition and the word tree is its
object. The full prepositional phrase modifies apple by telling us where it is.

6.2. Prepositions used in English

Prepositions are common in the English language. There are about 150 used with the most
common being: above, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, to, toward, under, upon, with
and within.

6.3. Prepositional Adverb

A prepositional adverb functions like an adverb within a sentence, which means that it modifies
or describes a verb and the action taking place

6.4. Standard Uses of Prepositions

We commonly use prepositions to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship

between two or more people, places, or things. Prepositions are most commonly followed by a
noun phrase or pronoun.

1. Conjunctions
- some words which are prepositions also function as conjunctions. When we use
a preposition that is followed by a clause, it is functioning as conjunction; when
we use a preposition that is followed by a noun phrase, it stays as a preposition.
- most common: are after, as, before, since, until

2. Adverbs
- several words which are prepositions also belong to the word class of adverbs.
- these include: about, across, around, before, beyond, in, inside, near, opposite,
outside, past, round, through, under, up, within

3. Abstract Meanings
- common prepositions that show relationships of space often have abstract as
well as concrete meanings.
- these include: behind, beyond, at, in, on
 4. Adjectives
- we commonly use prepositions after adjectives.
- most common adjective + preposition patterns: aware of, different from, similar to

5. Nouns
- many nouns have particular prepositions which normally follow them:
There’s been a large increase in the price of petrol.
Does anyone know the cause of the fire?

6. Verbs
- many verbs go together with prepositions to make prepositional verbs, these
always have an object:
I just couldn’t do without my phone.
Robert accused her of stealing his idea.
SOURCES:

Cambridge Dictionary. (2022, August 24). Prepositions. @CambridgeWords.

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/prepositions

Ross, B. (2016, November 30). Preposition Examples and How to Use Them | Grammarly. Preposition
Examples and How to Use Them | Grammarly; Grammarly Blog.
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/prepositions/?
gclid=CjwKCAjw3qGYBhBSEiwAcnTRLiyxOl0l6QqaBtAEHGWcwwEdNmAyEBRA8mVgJRcnbubjrLZufO
SxsRoC0esQAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds

Academic Guides: Grammar: Prepositions. (2022). Waldenu.edu.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/prepositions

Object of a Preposition Examples - The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation. (2021, July 19). The
Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation. https://www.grammarbook.com/blog/prepositions/object-of-a-
preposition/#:~:text=The%20prepositional%20object%20is%20the,telling%20us%20where%20it%20is

Lesson 7: Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Examples: but, and, because, although, yet, since, unless, or, nor, while, where, etc.

7.1. Types of Conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunction - connects words, phrases, and clauses that are

coordinated, or equal to each other. The most common coordinating conjunctions are
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the mnemonic
device FANBOYS.
2. Subordinating Conjunction - links a dependent clause to an independent clause.
Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while,
and whereas.
3. Correlative Conjunction - used to illustrate how two words or phrases within a
sentence relate to each other. Some examples are either/or, neither/nor, and not
only/but also.
SOURCE:
Grammarly. (2016, March 25). Conjunctions: Grammar Rules and Examples | Grammarly. Conjunctions:
Grammar Rules and Examples | Grammarly; Grammarly Blog.
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/conjunctions/

Lesson 8: Interjection

An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a
spontaneous feeling or reaction.

8.1. Kinds of Interjections and Their Meanings

1. Volitive Interjections - function as imperative or directive expressions

2. Emotive Interjections - express emotions, such as disgust and fear
3. Cognitive Interjections - express feelings which are more related to cognition
4. Interjection of Greeting - used to greet a person
5. Interjection of Joy - used to express sudden feelings of joy or happiness
6. Interjection of Praise - used to praise someone
7. Interjection of Attention - used to draw the attention of someone
8. Interjection of Surprise - used to express surprise over an incident
9. Interjection of Grief/Pain - used to express an intense sense of grief/pain in any
unfortunate event
10. Interjection of Doubt - used to indicate doubt or hesitation
SOURCES:

Bloomfield, Leonard (1933). Language. New York: Holt.

Goddard, C. (2014). Interjections and emotion (with special reference to “surprise” and “disgust”).
Emotion Review, 6(1), 53-63)

Definition and Types of Interjection - Literary English. (2022, April 19). Literary English.
https://literaryenglish.com/definition-and-types-of-interjection/

8.2. Position in the Sentence

BEGINNING OF SENTENCES

Interjections are commonly used at the beginning of the sentence. They’re also associated with
a punctuation mark designed to convey emotion: the exclamation point.

EXAMPLES:
1. Yikes, I didn’t realize that there was a test on grammar today!
2. Oh no, I can’t believe that it is snowing here again!

MIDDLE OR END OF SENTENCES

Interjections don’t always have to be at the beginning of a sentence. They can appear in the
middle, in the end, or anywhere else where the author wants to interject a bit of feeling and
emotion.

EXAMPLES:
 1. It’s snowing again, huh?
2. I missed my turn, darn it, so I have to wait even longer.

AS A STANDALONE SENTENCE

An interjection can also be used by itself as a standalone sentence with a period or an

exclamation mark. This is grammatically correct, even though an interjection doesn’t contain a
subject or verb, both are normally required for a complete thought. The interjection or the
emotion is the entire point of a sentence.

EXAMPLES:
1. Gosh! I can’t believe how late it is.
2. The fence is open. Oh no! The dog got out!
SOURCE:

Gunner, J. (2022). What Is An Interjection? Understanding the Part of Speech. Yourdictionary.com;

YOURDICTIONARY. https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/interjections/what-is-an-
interjection.html