UNIVERSITE D’ABOMEY-CALAVI

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Faculté des Lettres, Langues Arts et Communications

(FLLAC)
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DEPARTEMENT D’ANGLAIS

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1-GENERAL INFORMATION
Etablissement: Faculté des Langues, Lettres, Arts et Communication (FLLAC)
Domaine: Lettres, Langues et Arts
Mention: Langues, Littératures et Civilisations Etrangères
Spécialité : Anglais
Grade : Licence
Semestre: 1
UE : PLA 1101
ECU : Phonetics
Masse horaire : 25 heures
Nombre de crédit : 2
Chargés du cours:
1 - Dr Innocent KOUTCHADE, Maître de Conférences (CAMES)
de Linguistique Anglaise Appliquée.
2 - Dr André DATONDJI, Maître Assistant (CAMES)
de Linguistique Anglaise Appliquée
3 - Dr Albert KOUKPOSSI, Assistant, Linguistique Anglaise Appliquée

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2-COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OBJECTIVES:
2-1-Course description
This course deals with spoken language and sets up the basic framework for learning
speech sounds. It introduces some fundamental concepts of articulatory phonetics (the
physical processes involved in the speech sound by speakers) and focuses on the
identification and classification of speech sounds.
2-2-Objectives
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
 describe the basic structure of the speech organs;
 explain how speech sounds are produced;
 Identify the differences in production and function of vowels versus consonants.
 Identify the four parameters that are used to describe the articulation of
consonants.
 Define the various manners of articulation.
 Identify the three descriptive parameters that are used for vowel articulations, and
classify vowels using those three parameters.
 get familiar with phonetics symbols;
 check and use the right pronunciation of English words;
 improve their reading ability by relating spelling to pronunciation;

3 - COURSE CONTENTS
Part I: Oral English and English phonetics
Part II- The study of English Vowel Sounds
Part III-The study of English Consonant Sounds

4 -REQUIREMENTS
Prior knowledge of vocabulary will help. Motivation and commitment to speak good
English will guarantee great success in this class.

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5 - TEACHING/LEARNING METHODS

There are many different ways to teach and to learn. So we will experience as many
different ways of teaching/learning as possible. We will have lectures and discussions
each week. Learning activities will include oral practices, answering previous exam
questions and homework assignments. Moreover, students are expected to make use of
web-based resources to consolidate, test, or revise their knowledge.

6 - METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Formative and summative assessments are methods used to test the students’
knowledge.

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7 - REFERENCES
1. Adetugbo, A.(1993). English Phonetics: A course text. Lagos: University of
Lagos Press.
2. Cruttenden, A. (2008).Gimson’s Pronunciation of English (7thed). London:
Hodder Education
3. Davenport, M. &Hannahs, S.J.(2010). Introducing English Phonetics and
Phonology.(3rded). London: Hodder Education.
4. Finegan, E. (2007). Language: Its Structure and Use. (5thed). Boston:Thomson
Wadsworth.
5. Ladefoged, P. (1982). A Course in Phonetics. New York: H.B.J.
6. McGregor, W. B. (2009). Linguistics: An Introduction. London: Continum
7. Ogden, R. (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh : Edinburgh
University Press.
8. Roach, P. (1993). English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical
Course.(2nded). New-York: Cambridge University Press.
9. Yehouenou, C. B. (2009). Phonetics and Phonology of English. Cotonou: Gevoix
Publications
10. https://thesoundofenglish.org/

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure n° 1 : Sound wave of a vowel sound…………………………………………………….3
Figure n°2 : The Organs of speech ………….………………………………………………….. 6
Figure n° 3 : Parts of the tongue………………………………………………………………………5
Figure n° 4 : Lungs and other speech organs……………………………………………….. 7
Figure n° 5 : Open glottis……………………………………………………………………………… 8
Figure n° 6 : Narrowed glottis……………………………………………………………………… 8
Figure n° 7 : Places of articulation of Stop consonants……………………………………16
Figure n° 8 : Places of articulation of Fricative consonants……………………………..18
Figure n° 9 : Places of articulation of Affricates consonants……………………………19
Figure n° 10 : Places of articulation Approximants……………………………………………21
Figure n°11 : Places of articulation of nasal consonants…………………………………. 22
Figure n° 12 : Lips positions…………………………………………………………………………… 25
Figure n° 13 : Cardinal vowel chart………………………………………………………………….. 26
Figure n° 14 : English vowel Chart…………………………………………………………………….27
Figure n°15 : Vowels mouth positions……………………………………………………………..27
Figure n° 16 : Diphthongs………………………………………………………………………………… 34

LIST OF TABLES

Table n° 1.1 : Places of articulation…………………………………………………………………. 11

Table n° 1.2 : International Phonetic Alphabet……………………………………………….. 12
Table n° 2-1 : English stops……………………………………………………………………………… 17
Table n° 2.2 : English fricatives………………………………………………………………………… 18
Table n° 2.3 : English affricates……………………………………………………………………….. 20
Table n° 2-4 : English approximants ……………………………………………………………….. 21
Table n° 2-5 : English nasals……………………………………………………………………………. 22

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PRELIMINARIES

1-General information……………………………………………………………………………………………….. i
2-Course description and objectives…………………………………………………………………………… ii
2-1-Course description……………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
2-2-Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
3 - Course contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii
4 -Requirements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
5 - Teaching/learning methods……………………………………………………………………………………. iv
6 - Method of assessment…………………………………………………………………………………………… iv
7 - References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v

COURSE CONTENT

PART I: ORAL ENGLISH AND PHONETICS

1-1-Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
1-2- Articulatory phonetics ………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1-2-1- The major vocal organs ………………………………………………………………………………… 4
a) The larynx or voice box ………………………………………………………………………… 4
b) The pharynx ………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
c) The nasal cavity or nasal tract ……………………………………………………………… 5
d) The vocal cords …………………………………………………………………………………… 5
e) The soft palate or velum ……………………………………………………………………… 5
f) The hard palate …………………………………………………………………………………… 5
g) The alveolar ridge ………………………………………………………………………………… 5
h) The tongue …………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
i) The lips ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
1.2.2 - The main aspects related to speech production …………………………………………… 6
1-2-2-1-Airstream mechanism …………………………………………………………………………… 6
1-2-2-2- The vocal cords …………………………………………………………………………………… 7
1-2-2-3-The velum……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
1-2-2-4-The oral tract …………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
1-2-2-5-Manner of articulation …………………………………………………………………………… 10
1-2-2-6-Place of articulation ………………………………………………………………………………… 10
1-2-3-Speech sound classification …………………………………………………………………………… 11
1-2-4- The Phonetic alphabet ………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
PART II: THE STUDY OF ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS
2-1- Stops …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
2-2-Fricatives……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
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2-3-Affricates …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
2-4-Approximants ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….20
2-5-English nasals…………………………………………………………………………………………………………22
PART III: THE STUDY OF ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS
3-1-The cardinal vowel chart………………………………………………………………………………………..25
3-2-The English vowels…………………………………………………………………………………………………27
3-2-1-Pure vowels (monophthongs) ……………………………………………………………………………27
a) English vowel N°1 : [i:] ……………………………………………………………………………28
b) English vowel N°2 : [ɪ] ………………………………………………………………………… 28
c) English vowel N°3 : [e] ……………………………………………………………………………29
d) English vowel N°4 : [æ] ………………………………………………………………………… 29
e) English vowel N°5 : [ɑ:] ………………………………………………………………………… 30
f) English vowel N°6 : [ɒ] ……………………………………………………………………………30
g) English vowel N°7 : [ɔ:] ……………………………………………………………………………31
h) English vowel N°8 : [ʊ] ……………………………………………………………………………31
i) English vowel N°9 : [u:] ……………………………………………………………………………32
j) English vowel N°10 : [ᴧ] ………………………………………………………………………… 32
k) English vowel N°11 : [з:] …………………………………………………………………………33
l) English vowel N°12 : [ə] ………………………………………………………………………… 33
3-2-2-Gliding vowels…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
3-2-2-1 – Diphthongs………………………………………………………………………………………... 34
3-2-2-2 - Triphthongs ………………………………………………………………………………………..… 35

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 1

PART I: ORAL ENGLISH AND PHONETICS

/ˈɔːrəl ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ˈænd fəˈnɛtɪks/

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1-1-Introduction [ˌɪntrəˈdʌkʃən]

Phonetics is defined as the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-
production, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides a method for their
description, classification and transcription. Phonetics describes phonemes (minimal unit
in the sound system of a language) as accurately as possible, based on their articulation.
The science is intimately related to other branches of knowledge. In looking at the so called
organs of speech like the lungs, the larynx, and the tongue for instance, we may be looking
at physiology. Speech is transmitted through air waves. In investigating the properties of
sound waves, we are studying the physics of sound or acoustics. We can also study how
the listener processes a sound wave.

In essence, there are three main branches of phonetics:

(1) Articulatory phonetics /ɑːˈtɪkjʊlətərɪ fəˈnɛtɪks/ which covers the aspects of

phonetics which look at how the sounds of speech are made with the organs of the
vocal tract” (Ogden 2009:173). It focuses on the different parts of the human vocal
apparatus and describes sounds in terms of their articulation in the vocal tract. Due
to the importance of this sub-branch of phonetics at this level of the course, more
details will be provided on it.
(2) Acoustic phonetics /əˈkuːstɪk fəˈnɛtɪks/ is the study of the physical properties of
speech. It aims to analyse sound wave signals that occur within speech through
varying frequencies, amplitudes and durations. It uses the tools of physics to study
the nature of sound waves produced in human language. Acoustic phonetics is
increasingly important in linguistics with attempts to use machines for interpreting
speech patterns in voice identification and voice-initiated mechanical operations.
Figure n° 1 shows the sound wave of a vowel sound.

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Figure n° 1 : A waveform of a vowel

(3) Auditory phonetics /ˈɔːdɪtəri fəˈnɛtɪks/ studies how speech sounds are perceived
and interpreted by the listener as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.

As a matter of fact, phonetics is studied in relation to phonology. In a certain respect,

phonetics and phonology deal with many of the same things since they both have to do
with speech sounds of human language. To an extent, they also share the same vocabulary
(though the specific meaning of the word may differ). However, it is important to point out
that phonetics deals with speech sounds themselves, how they are made, how they are
perceived and the physics involved, whereas phonology deals with how speech sounds are
organised into systems for each individual language. In other words, phonetics deals with
sounds from a language-independent point of view, while phonology studies the ways in
which they are distributed and deployed within particular languages, for example the way
speech sounds can be combined, the relations between them and how they affect each other.

1-2- Articulatory phonetics /ɑːˈtɪkjʊlətərɪ fəˈnɛtɪks/

The medium through which most of us experience language very often is sound. For all
non-deaf language users, the first exposure to language is through sounds, and in non-
literate, hearing societies, it is typically the only medium. Humans have a variety of ways
of producing sounds, not all of which are relevant to language (for example: coughing,
burping, etc.). How speech sounds are used in language, is the focus of this section, and

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one obvious place to start out is to look at the physical processes involved in the production
of speech sounds by speakers : the study of articulatory phonetics.
This section deals with the most important organs involved in speech production and the
major aspects relating to it. Figure n°2 displays the articulators involved in the production
of speech sounds.

Figure n° 2: The organs of speech

1-2-1- The major vocal organs /ˈðə ˈmeɪdʒər ˈspiːtʃ ˈɔːrgən/

a) The larynx or voice box /ˈðə ˈlærɪŋks ˈɔːr ˈvɔɪs ˈbɒks/: The larynx is that part of
the vocal tract that comes immediately on top of the trachea [trəˈkiːə]/windpipe
[ˈwɪndpaɪp] and is co-extensive with it. The larynx contains the vocal cords also
termed vocal folds, made of elastic tissue and capable of movement. From the
speech production viewpoint, the role of larynx is to turn the silent flow of air from
the lungs into audible sound.
b) The pharynx /ˈðə ˈfærɪŋks/: It is a tube which begins just above the larynx or voice
box. It extends from the trachea and the root of the tongue, to the back region of the
soft palate. The pharynx is the common channel for deglutition (swallowing) and

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respiration, and the food and air pathways cross each other in the pharynx. Its role
in the speech sound production process is that of resonance.
c) The nasal cavity or nasal tract /ˈðə ˈneɪzəl ˈkævɪti ˈɔːr ˈneɪzəl ˈtrækt/: During the
production of speech sounds, the nasal cavity is either available (open with lowered
velum), in which case the sounds produced are nasal - [n], [m] and [ŋ] - or it is
unavailable (closed with raised velum), in which case the sounds articulated are oral
- [t/d], [p/b] and [k/g].

d) The vocal cords /ˈðə ˈvəʊkəl ˈkɔːrdz/: The vocal cords are elastic tissues located
in the larynx. They are joined at the front of the larynx, at the level of the Adam’s
apple, and are capable of moving horizontally. The glottis is the space between the
vocal cords.
e) The soft palate or velum /ˈðə ˈsɒft ˈpælət] ˈɔːr ˈviːləm/ which is capable of
assuming two positions: lowered velum (velic opening) and raised velum (velic
closure).
f) The hard palate /ˈðə ˈhɑːrd ˈpælət/: It is a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull,
located in the roof of the mouth.
g) The alveolar ridge [ˈðiː ælˈvɪələ ˈrɪdʒ/: it includes the area between the upper front
teeth and the hard palate. Since it is not capable of movement, its role is mainly that
of place of articulation.
h) The tongue : It is a very agile (mobile / active) organ of speech. It plays a very
important role in the articulation of both consonants and vowels. The tongue is
generally divided into five parts for the sake of phonetic description : the (1)tip which
is the extreme part of the tongue, the (2)blade which lies opposite to the alveolar
ridge, the (3)front which is opposite to the hard palate, the (4)back which lies
opposite to the soft palate or velum and the (5)root. Figure N° 3 displays the parts of
the tongue.

Figure n° 3 : The parts of the tongue

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i) The lips : the lips can be spread, rounded or neutral. What matters in speech articulation
is whether the lips are rounded or unrounded. Vowels can be distinguished on the basis of
lip rounding.

1.2.2 - The main aspects related to speech production

/ˈðə ˈmeɪn ˈæspɛkts rɪˈleɪtɪd ˈtu ˈspiːtʃ prəˈdʌkʃən/

The production of speech involves three successive processes: (1) initiation which means
setting air in motion through the vocal tract, (2) phonation which is the modification of
airflow as it passes through the larynx (related to voicing) and (3) the articulation, that is
the shaping of the airflow to generate particular sound types (related to manner). For an
accurate description and classification of speech sounds (phonemes), one has to cautiously
consider the main aspects of their production. Among such aspects are the following :

- The air stream mechanism : where the air used in speech starts from, and which
direction it is travelling in;
- The state of the vocal cords : whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, which
determines voicing;
- The state of the velum : whether it is raised or lowered, which determines whether
a sound is oral or nasal;
- The place and manner of articulation : the horizontal and vertical positions of the
lips.
Indeed, speech sounds are created by modifying the volume and direction of a flow of air,
using various parts of the human respiratory system. We need to consider the state of these
parts in order to be able to describe and classify the sounds of human languages.

1-2-2-1-Airstream mechanism /ˈɛəstriːm ˈmɛkənɪzəm/

Most speech sounds are produced on a stream of air forced out from the lungs (see
figure n° 4), through the trachea or windpipe, and then through the upper vocal tract,

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where the airstream is modified in various ways to produce different sounds. This
type of airstream is called an egressive pulmonic airstream. Speech in English and
most other languages is usually produced on egressive pulmonic air. The term
“egressive” means that the airstream is pushed outwards from the lungs.

It is also possible, on the opposite, to produce speech sounds on air drawn into the
lungs, on an ingressive pulmonic airstream. This is like speaking while breathing in.
Although not as often used as egressive pulmonic air, in some languages, it is used
to convey certain emotional effects. For instance, in Danish and other Scandinavian
languages, words, particularly ja ‘yes’- are sometimes produced on an ingressive
airstream to indicate sympathy or commiseration.

Figure n° 4 : The lungs and other speech organs

1-2-2-2- The vocal cords /ˈðə ˈvəʊkəl kɔːdz/

As the airstream is pushed out from the lungs, it moves up the trachea into the larynx. In
the larynx the airflow encounters the vocal cords or folds. For the need of articulation, the

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vocal cords can assume two general configurations : open and narrow. When the vocal
cords are open, the airflow from the lungs is unimpeded / unostructed. It doesn’t then set
the vocal cords into vibration. When the vocal cords are not vibrating, the sounds
articulated are voiceless. Some examples are [p], [f], [k], [t].

Figure n° 5: Open glottis

In the case of narrow configuration, the vocal cords are brought together by muscular
contractions as in Figure n° 6 which shows a narrowed glottis. Then the airstream is
forced through, thus causing the vocal cords to vibrate. The sounds articulated are
voiced sounds. These are some examples [z], [b], [v], [g], [d].

Figure n° 6: Narrowed glottis

cords
We can feel, as well as hear the difference between voiceless and voiced sounds by
our fingers against our Adam’s apple and then making prolonged ‘sss’ (as in ‘hiss’)
and ‘zzz’(as in ‘his’) sounds: for the ‘zzz’ sound we should be able to feel the
vibration of the narrowed vocal cords, whereas for ‘sss’ the vocal cords are wide
apart and there is no such vibration.

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1-2-2-3-The velum /ˈðə ˈviːləm/

The position of the velum is the next consideration. The velum or soft palate, is a
muscular flap at the back of the roof of the mouth. It may be raised, thus obstructing
the passage to the nasal cavity, or lowered, thus allowing air into and through the
nose. When the velum is raised (known as ‘velic closure’), the air can only flow into
the oral tract, that is, the mouth. Sounds produced in this state of the velum are
known as oral sounds (like all those in ‘frog’ for example). When the velum is
lowered (known as ‘velic opening’), air flows into both mouth and nose, resulting
in nasal sounds (the first and last sounds in ‘man’, or the final sound in the verb
‘sing’ [ˈsɪŋ] for example).

1-2-2-4-The oral tract /ˈðiː ˈɔːrəl ˈtrækt/

We have thus far considered the type of airstream mechanism involved in the
production of a speech sound, the state of the vocal cords (whether the sound is
voiced or voiceless, for instance) and the state of the velum (whether the sound is
nasal or oral). We now look at the state of the oral tract, in particular, the position of
the active articulators (lower lip and tongue) in relation to the passive articulators
(the upper surfaces of the oral tract).

The active articulators are, as their name suggests, the movable parts of the vocal
apparatus, such as the lips and the tongue. The passive articulators are the non-
mobile parts-the upper lip, the teeth, the roof of the mouth and the pharynx wall. The
roof of the mouth is subdivided into alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate (or velum)
and uvula.

Consideration of the relative position of active and passive articulators allows us to

specify what are known as manner of articulation and the place of articulation of
each speech sound.
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1-2-2-5-Manner of articulation /ˈmænər ˈɒv ɑːrˌtɪkjuˈleɪʃən/

In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation refers to the vertical relationship

between the active and passive articulators, i.e. the distance between them, usually known
as stricture, which means how closely the speech organs get to one another.
When the articulators are pressed together (known as complete closure), a blockage of air
is created, causing air pressure to build up behind the blockage. When the closure is
removed, the air is released in a rush. The sounds produced in this way are known as stops;
these may be oral (with raised velum), as in the first and last sound in ‘bad’, or nasal
(lowered velum), as in the first and last sound in ‘man’.
When the articulators are close together, but without complete closure (a stricture of close
approximation), the air is forced through the narrow gap between the articulators, causing
some turbulence. Sounds produced in this way are known as fricatives like the first and
last sounds in ‘fez’.
For the other major sound types-liquids, glides, and vowels - there is free passage of air
through the oral tract. However, the exact relation between the articulators will vary. For
vowels and glides, the articulators are wide apart and the air flows out unhindered (this is
known as open approximation). For liquids (the first and last sounds in ‘rail’), there is
both contact and free air passage: for the ‘r’ sound, the sides of the tongue are in contact
with the gums, but the air flows freely down the centre of the tongue, and for the ‘l’ sound,
the centre of the tongue is in contact with the alveolar ridge but the air flows out over the
lowered sides of the tongue.

1-2-2-6-Place of articulation /ˈpleɪs ˈɒv ɑːrˌtɪkjuˈleɪʃən/

The place of articulation refers to the horizontal relationship between the articulators. It
specifies the position of the highest point of the active articulator (usually some part of the
tongue, but the lower lip may also be the active articulator) in relation to the passive
articulator. The passive articulator involved typically gives its name to the place of
articulation. The major places of articulation are shown in the table below:

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Places of articulation Active articulator Passive articulator Example

Bilabial lower lip upper lip bat
labiodental lower lip upper teeth fish
dental (interdental) tongue tip or blade upper teeth moth
alveolar tongue tip or blade alveolar ridge dog
palate-alveolar (or alveo-palatal) tongue blade behind alveolar ridge shark
palatal tongue front hard palate yak
velar tongue back velum goat
glottal vocal cords vocal cords hare
Table n° 1.1 : Places of articulation.
1-2-3-Speech sound classification /ˈspiːtʃ ˈsaʊnd ˌklæsəfɪˈkeɪʃən/

We now have a method of describing the articulation of any speech sound by

specifying (1)the airstream mechanism, (2)the state of the vocal cords, (3)
the position
of the velum, (4)the place of articulation and (5)the manner of articulation. Thus, the
first sound in ‘pig’ could be classified –using these five features – as a pulmonic
egressive, voiceless, oral bilabial stop.
In fact, for consonants, it is more usual to indicate a three term classification [or
three term label (3TL)], referring to voicing, place and manner, with air stream and
velum only referred to when they are not pulmonic egressive and oral respectively.
Thus the ‘p’ sound in ‘pig’ is normally referred to as a voiceless bilabial stop.
For vowels, the classification is slightly different; voicing is typically irrelevant,
since in most languages, vowels are also voiced and manner and the vertical (manner
for consonants) and horizontal (place for consonants) dimensions are more
restricted. All vowels are produced with a stricture of open approximation, so
manner as such is irrelevant. However, vowels are characterised by the position of
the tongue and the relative rounding of the lips.

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1-2-4- The Phonetic alphabet /ˈðə fəˈnɛtɪk ˈælfəbɛt/

To refer to the sounds of human language in terms of their articulation, phoneticians

have designed descriptive techniques that avoid the difficulties of describing sounds
in terms of customary writing systems. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to use
customary written representations to analyse sound structure because, even within a
single language, some speech sounds (phonemes) correspond to more than one letter,
and some letters to more than one sound. Then, too, a single letter can be used to
represent different sounds in different languages. So we need an independent system
to represent the actual sounds of human language.
In scientific discussion, the requisite characteristics of symbols for representing
sounds are clarity and consistency. The best tool is a phonetic alphabet, and the one
most widely used is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA provides a
unique written representation of every sound in every languages as provided in Table
n° 1.2

Table n° 1.2:

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Exercises

1-Describe the different shapes the glottis can take.

2-What are air stream mechanisms? Which of them is most appropriate for
English speech sounds production?

3-What are the functions of the soft palate in speech articulation?

4-What are the active and passive articulators involved in the production of:

- velar sounds?
- bilabial sounds?
- labio-dental sounds?
- palatal sounds?
- alveolar sounds?

5 - In each of the following words, a speech sound is underlined. For each sound
state (i) its voicing, (ii) whether it is oral or nasal, (iii) its place of articulation
and (iv) its manner of articulation.
a- bee b- reason c- hang d- jungle e- vine f- leech
g- listen h- lark j- time k- dowry l- pineapple m- jet

6. Choose an appropriate term from the list, and insert it into one (or more) of the
gaps in the paragraph that follows: bronchi / lungs / glottis / trachea / larynx /
vocal folds

The ____________ supply the air for almost all speech sounds. Air passes from them into
the ____________, one from each of the two ____________, and these two airstreams
merge in the ____________, a short tube situated in the lower part of the neck.
On top of this is a valve known as the ___________. Here the supply of air to the
throat and mouth is controlled by opening or closing the _____________ which is the gap
between the two _____________. In ordinary quiet breathing the ____________ is open;

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for swallowing it is closed in order to protect the ____________. A noteworthy

evolutionary adaptation in humans allows voice to be produced by positioning the
____________ in such a way that passage of air between them causes them to vibrate.

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PART II: THE STUDY OF ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS

/ˈðə ˈstʌdi ˈɒv ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ˈkɒnsənənt ˈsaʊndz/

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Consonants are sounds produced while partially or completely blocking air in its
passage from the lungs through the vocal tract. Consonants are described according
to their voicing, manner of articulation and place of articulation. In this chapter, we
concentrate on the consonant sounds of English hereunder described as stops,
fricatives, affricates, approximants, and nasals.

2-1- Stops /ˈstɒps/

Certain consonants can be made by complete closure of some part of the vocal tract,
behind which air pressure builds up. The pressure can then be released, sometimes
in an explosive way. Stops consonants are also called plosives for this reason.
English has six plosive consonants sounds : [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. If we take into
account their places of articulation, we can recognise that [p] and [b] are bilabial
stops, [t] and [d] are alveolar stops, and [k] and [g] velar stops as shown in table 2.1.
In addition, many languages have a glottal stop. It is pronounced by using the glottis
to completely but briefly block the air from passing in the throat. The glottal stop is
represented by [ʔ]. For example, it is used in American English and in Cockney
English, as the medial consonant of words like butter and bottle. Figure n°7 presents
the places of articulation of English stop sounds.

Figure n° 7 : Stop consonants’ places of articulation

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Place of articulation
Bilabial Alveolar Velar Glottal
Voiceless p t k ʔ
Voiced b d g
Table2-1: English stops
Word drill
/p/ : shape - shop - stop – type,
/b/ : ball - bear - bird - black - blue – body,
/t/ : city - later - letter - matter – political,
/d/ : daisy - day - deal – deer - ladder - model - provide - side - wood
/k/ : call - clock - coat - quarter - queen – psychology,
/g/ : gear - get - ghost - girl drug - egg

Sentence drill
/p/ : Please place your plates in a pile in the parlour.
/b/ : Bravo Brandon! You’ve brought us back a kebab from the pub!
/t/ : Tony’s tonsils tickled as he took a tipple of tequila.
/d/ : Don’t you dare defend him, Derek. He definitely did it.
/k/ : Can you come camping in Turkey with me and Claire?
/g/ : I grew some grapes in my garden and lugged them here in my bag.
2-2-Fricatives /ˈfrɪkətɪv/

Fricatives are characterized by a forcing of air in a continuous stream through a

narrow opening. To pronounce the alveolar fricatives [s] and [z], air is forced
through a narrow opening between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. In
pronouncing the first sounds in the words thin, three, and the final sound in teeth
and bath, notice that the tongue tip is placed between the lower and upper teeth,
where the airstream is most constricted and makes its articulation. Represented by
[θ], the sound in these words is a voiceless interdental (dental) fricative. Its voiced

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counterpart [ð] is the initial sound in the words there and then and is the middle
consonant sound in either. Figure n°8 presents the places of articulation of English
fricative sounds.

Figure n° 8 : Fricative consonants’ places of articulation

Table 2.2 below presents the different fricatives in English:

Place of articulation
Labio- inter- alveo-
dental dental alveolar palatal glottal
voiceless f θ S ʃ h
voiced v ð z ʒ
Table2.2: English fricatives
Examples:
/f/ : find - fine - fact - fail - fall - family - far – feel - chief - half
/v/ : vote - view - believe - drive - expensive - five – give - never - over
/θ/ : third - throw - threat - three - threw – throat - truth - wealth - worth
/ð/ : though, father - another - either - neither – other - feather - further
/s/ : sip - sell - vegetable - vehicle – verb - live - love - move - observe
/z/ : close - tease - cheese - choose - close (v.) keys - leaders - lives - shoes
/ʃ/ : shine, shoes - should – shoulder - education – function - efficient
/ʒ/ : measure, vision decision – division - measure – pleasure - precision
/h/ : his - hall - happen hot - house – how - ahead - alcohol - behave

/f/ : The fox fought off the ferret for food

/v/ : Victor never lived or drove in Venezuela.
/θ/ : Think about both authors’ theories thoroughly.
/ð/ : My father and brother share these clothes.

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/s/ : Sophie and Jess sell essential briefcases to businessmen.

/z/ : Zoe has crazy zebra-striped designer shoes.
/ʃ/ : Surely you wish Welsh stations sold champagne?
/ʒ/ : He measures his Asian television exposure at leisure.
/h/ : He helped to fund the hospital’s helicopter ahead of the election.

2-3-Affricates /ˈæfrɪkɪts/

Two consonant sounds of English are more complex to describe than its stops and
fricatives components. These are the sounds that occur initially in chin [ˈtʃɪn] and gin
[ˈdʒɪn] and at the end of the words batch [ˈbætʃ] and badge [ˈbædʒ]. If you pronounce
these sounds slowly enough, you can recognise that they are stop-fricatives, which
we’ll refer to as affricates. In the pronunciation of an affricate, air is built up by a
complete closure of the oral tract at some place of articulation, then released
(sometimes like a stop) and continued (like a fricative). The sound in “chin” is a
combination of the stop [t] and the fricative [ʃ] and is represented as [ʧ]. The sound
at the beginning and end of judge [ˈdʒʌdʒ] is a combination of the stop [d] and the
fricative [ʒ], represented as [ʤ]. English has only this pair of affricates, and to
capture their place of articulation they are called alveo-palatal (palato-alveolar).
Figure n°9 presents the places of articulation of English affricative consonant
sounds.

Figure n° 9 : Affricates’ places of articulation

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Table 2.3 below presents the affricates in English:

Place of articulation
Palato-alveolar
Voiceless [ʧ]
Voiced [ʤ]
Table 2.3: English affricates

Word drill :

[ʧ] : Check – choice – chalk – cheese – chair – chain,

[ʤ] : jewel – generator – justify – jar – jargon - dodge

Sentence drill :

/tʃ/ : Charlie cheerfully checked for more scotch.

Please Fetch the mature cheddar cheese.
It was a challenge not to cheat at the chess championship.
/dʒ/ : John hit Jim’s Jaguar with an orange.
Jemima’s huge Jeep is outrageous.
Just do your duty General, the soldiers are counting on you.

2-4-Approximants /əˈprɒksɪmənts/

English has four sounds that are known as approximants because they are produced
by two articulators approaching one another almost like fricatives but not coming
close enough to produce friction. The English approximants are: [j], [r] (IPA [ɹ]), [l],
and [w]. The sound that begins the word you [ˈjuː] is the palatal approximant [j].
Because [r] is pronounced by channelling air through the central part of the mouth,
it is called a central approximant. To pronounce [l], air is channelled on one or both
sides of the tongue to make a lateral approximant. To distinguish them from the other
approximants, [r] and [l] are sometimes called liquids.

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In pronouncing the approximant [w], the lips are rounded, as in wild [ˈwaɪld]. For
certain dialects, in some words, [h] precedes [w] as in which [ˈwɪtʃ] or whether
[ˈwɛðə]. Figure n°10 presents the places of articulation of English approximant
sounds.

Figure n° 10 : Approximants’ places of articulation

Table 2-4 below presents the different approximants in English.

Place of articulation
Bilabial alveolar palatal
Voiced (central) w r (ɹ) j
Voiced (lateral) l

Table 2-4: English approximants

Word drill :
/w/ : wait – wake - walk – wall - wasp – watch - Washington - woman - wonder
/r/ : read - really - report - result – rhyme - around - break – carry
/r/ : yarn, year, yellow, Yemen, yes, yesterday Matthew, nephew interview, review
/l/ : late - leave - let – life - feel - level – school - people - possible - table

Sentence drill :
/j/ : Yonkers youths used to use yellow yaks to ride to Europe.
/w/ : One Wednesday last week, I woke up to find Wally walking weirdly.
/r/ : Running rings around Rebecca really irritates Ronald.
/l/ : Lily loves playing lacrosse with Larry
Letting agents are not allowed in Ealing
Lob at least eleven lemons in the lemon cake, Lucy!
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2-5-English nasals /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ˈneɪzəl/

Nasal consonants are pronounced by lowering the velum, thus allowing the stream
of air to pass out through the nasal cavity. English has three nasal stops: [m] as in
mad, drummer, cram; [n] as in new, sinner, ten; and a third, symbolised as [ŋ] and
pronounced as in the words sing and singer. Figure n°11 presents the places of
articulation of English nasal consonant sounds.

Figure n°11: Nasal consonants’ places of articulation

Table 2-5 below presents the nasal sounds in English.

Place of articulation
Bilabial alveolar nasal
Voiced (nasal) m n ŋ

Table 2-5: English nasals

Moreover, a few consonants are not stops, fricatives, affricates, approximants, or nasals.
The middle consonant sound in butter and metal is commonly pronounced in American
speech as an alveolar flap, which is a high velocity short stop produced by tapping the
tongue against the alveolar ridge. We represent this flap by [ɾ]

Word drill
/m/ : moan many lemon omelette ram some
/n/ : no never leaner handy soon loan
/ŋ/ : sing bring hanger wrongly think banking

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Sentence drill
How many monks are on their way now?
I’m coming to the conclusion that nobody knows.
You can’t sing, Mandy, no way.
Working on this movie has not changed my mind.

Exercises

I-What is manner of articulation?

II-What three parameters do we use to describe consonants?

III-Assuming the consonants of English, indicate the symbol representing the sound
described by each of the following:

a) voiceless alveolar stop

b) voiced dental fricative
c) voiceless velar stop
d) voiced alveolar nasal (stop)

IV- Describe each of the following symbols in words.

Example: [d] = voiced alveolar stop.

a-[b] b-[m] c-[v] d-[ʤ] e-[r]

V-Identify the difference in articulation between the following groups of sounds. For
example, [p b t g] differ from [f s ʃ θ] in that the sounds in the first set are all stops
and the sounds in the second set are fricatives.
a. [p t s k] vs. [b d z g]
b. [b d g] vs. [m n ŋ]
c. [n l r] vs. [t d s]
d. [p b f v m] vs. [t d s z n]
e. [w j] vs. [l r]

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PART III: THE STUDY OF ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS

/ˈðə ˈstʌdi ˈɒv ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ˈvaʊəl ˈsaʊndz/

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Vowel sounds are produced by passing air through different shapes of the mouth, with
different positions of the tongue and of the lips, and with the airstream relatively
unobstructed by narrow passages except at the glottis.

Vowels are articulated in a manner different to that of consonants: the articulators are far
enough apart to allow the airflow to exit unhindered, that is, with open approximation.
There is nonetheless an established three-term classification system for vowels similar to
that for consonants. These are:

- the height of the tongue : It is concerned with the vertical distance between the
upper surface of the tongue and the hard palate. From this perspective, vowels can
be described as close/high and open/low.
- the position of the highest point of the tongue : this is concerned with the part of
the tongue between the front, the center and the back, which is raised highest. From
this perspective vowel sounds are classified as front vowels, central vowels and
back vowels.
- the position of the lips which may be rounded, spread or neutral. Figure n° 12 shows
the positions of the lips.

Figure n° 12 : lips positions

3-1-The cardinal vowel chart /ˈðə ˈkɑːrdnəl ˈvaʊəl ˈtʃɑːrt/

The cardinal vowel system as proposed by Daniel Jones is based on both articulatory and
perceptual judgements. Two axes of tongue movements are recognized in order to achieve
an accurate classification of vowels: a close-open vertical axis, and a front-back horizontal
axis. Cardinal vowels illustrate the extremes of vowel quality that the vocal tract is able to
produce. They are numbered counter-clockwise, beginning in the upper left corner. Such
vowels are developed by phoneticians as a standard reference system for an accurate
identification of the place of articulation of vowels from all human languages. In other
words, cardinal vowels are not specific to the English language.

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Four levels of tongue height are recognized both in the front of the mouth and at the back.
The first two of these are:

(1) the highest point to which the tongue can be raised, front and back without obstructing
the flow of air enough to produce audible friction noise;
(2) the lowest the tongue is able to reach, both front and back;

Positions (3) and (4) recognize two intermediate points along the front and back axes of
the movement of the tongue and divide them equidistantly. Below in Figure n°12 is the
cardinal vowel quadrilateral after Daniel Jones. The International Phonetic Association
have identified two types of cardinal vowels : eight (8) primary cardinal vowels which are
more familiar to the speakers of most European languages, and eight (8) secondary
cardinal vowels, the less familiar ones. This course focusses the former ones.

The cardinal vowel quadrilateral shows both tongue height and the frontness and the
backness of the tongue. Vowel (1) and (8) are high / close. Vowels (4) and (5) are low /
open. Vowels (2) and (7) are mid-high / mid close while vowels (3) and (6) are mid-low /
mid open. In English and most other languages, the spreading of the lips usually
correlates with frontness, and lip-rounding with backness. Natural lip configurations are
then assumed for the first eight vowels: those in the front, vowels (1) to (4), are made with
lips unrounded while vowels (5) to (8) are made with lip rounded. In effect, front vowels
(1) to (4) are naturally said with spread lips while back vowels (5) to (8) are said naturally
with rounded lips.

Figure n° 13 : Cardinal vowel chart

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3-2-The English vowels /ˈðiː ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ˈvaʊəlz/

Figure n° 14 : English vowel Chart

3-2-1-Pure vowels (monophthongs) /ˈpjʊər ˈvaʊəlz/ /ˈmɒnəfθɒŋz/

A vowel which remains constant and does not glide during its pronunciation is called a
pure vowel. The term ‘pure’ vowel is used in reference to the approximately stationary
state of the speech organs during the articulation of such vowels. On the opposite, the
organs of speech perform a clearly perceptible movement during the pronunciation of a
diphthong. There exist twelve pure vowels in English : seven (7) short vowel phonemes
and five (5) long vowel phonemes. Figure n°14 shows the positions of the mouth for the
pronunciation of the twelve pure vowel

Figure n°15 : Mouth positions for English vowel sounds

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This section provides the phonetic description and spelling instances for each vowel in the
order where they occur in the vowel chart.

a) English vowel N°1:[i:]

Description
- height of tongue : close
- part of tongue which is highest : front
- position of lips : spread

Spellings of [i:]

Graphemes Examples
ee tree, cheese, canteen, see, feed, feet, eel, beef
ea Leaf, reason, sea, reach, seat, bead, leave,cease
ie Piece, field, siege, liege
ei; ey Seize, receive, key

Sentences
I see no reason for the weeping
These green beans are cheap
b) English vowel N°2:[ɪ]

Description

- height of tongue : half-close

- part of tongue which is highest : front
- position of lips : spread (less than VS N°1)

Spellings of[ɪ]

Graphemes Examples
I Fifth, rich, sit, with, built, milk, film,sin
E Pretty, needed, careless, business, houses
A Village; private
Ie Cities; ladies

Sentences
The rich businessman stays in his office till six
Six council women will visit the village

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c) English vowel N°3: [e]

Description

- height of tongue : between half-close and half-open

- part of tongue which is highest : front
- position of lips : spread

Spellings of [e]

Graphemes Examples
E Bed, set, ten, well, desk, wretch, red, fell, health
Ea Breath, dead, head
A Many, Thames

Sentences
When he is ready to leave I will get up
Ten healthy leopard were sent to the zoo

d) English vowel N°4: [æ]

Description

- height of tongue : between half-open and open

- part of tongue which is highest : front
- position of lips : spread or neutral

Spellings of[æ]

Graphemes Examples
A Hand, lamp, marry, sat, cat, pack, sad, land, cap
ait, aid Plaid, plait
Sentences
The cat always catches a fat rat
It is a fat that black caps are banned

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e) English vowel N°5: [ɑ:]

Description

- height of tongue : fully open

- part of tongue which is highest : back
- position of lips : neutral

Spellings of[ɑ:]

Graphemes Examples
ar Part, car, march, hard, carve, harm, snarled
ear Heart, hearth
a Last, past, bath, raft, dance
al Calm, palm, calf
er Clerk, Derby, sergeant

Sentences
He remarked that the car was a disaster
It is heartless to laugh at one’s father

f) English vowel N°6: [ɒ]

Description

- height of tongue : fully-open

- part of tongue which is highest : back
- position of lips : open lip-rounding

Spellings of[ɒ]

Graphemes Examples
o Dock; dog; sorry; gone; impossible; involve
a Was; what, swan, yatcht
ou, ow Cough, knowledge
au Because, sausage, Austria, bureaucracy

Sentences
The boss got the wrong box
The problem is to get a doctor on the spot

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g) English vowel N°7:[ɔ:]

Description

- height of tongue : between half-open and open

- part of tongue which is highest : back
- position of lips : between open and close lip-rounding

Spellings of [ɔ:]

Graphemes Examples
ar, or, ore War, quart, cord, born, before, more
Our Court, four
oar; oor Oar, board, door, floor
Aw Saw, lawn, jaw, awesome
Ou Bought, ought

Sentences
They fought the war at dawn
He was caught being naughty in the dormitory
h) English vowel N°8:[ʊ]

Description

- height of tongue : just above half-close

- part of tongue which is highest : back
- position of lips : fairly close lip-rounding

Spellings of[ʊ]

Graphemes Examples
u butcher, cellular, cushion, full, put, pull
oo book, wood, wool, wolf
o bosom, woman
ou could, courier, should, would

Sentences
He should look for a good cook
He said he would get it by hook or by crook

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i) English vowel N°9: [u:]

Description

- height of tongue : nearly close

- part of tongue which is highest : back
- position of lips : close lip-rounding

Spellings of[u:]

Graphemes Examples
u Rude, June, crucial, use, rule
oo Food, soon, moon, shoot, pool
o Do, who, move, lose
ou Group, soup, through
ew Chew, flew, askew

Sentences
He threw the spoon into the soup
You will soon lose your shoes

j) English vowel N°10: [ᴧ]

Description

- height of tongue : half-open

- part of tongue which is highest : the central part
- position of lips : spread

Spellings of[ᴧ]

Graphemes Examples
U Cut, dull, lump, much, fun, fund, result
o Son, come, one, done, month, London, Monday
ou Country, southern, couple, enough, tough
oo Blood, flood
oe Does

Sentences
It is tough to run into such trouble
Her mother and her brother had lunch with her uncle

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k) English vowel N°11: [з:]

Description

- height of tongue : about half-way between open and close

- part of tongue which is highest : centre
- position of lips : spread

Spellings of[з:]

Graphemes Examples
er, err Her, serve, err, perfect, serve
ur, urr Turn, church, urge, purse, Thursday, curl
ir, irr Sir, bird, first, girl, thirsty
ear Earth, heard, search, earl
our Jouney, courtesy, scourge
Sentences
I prefer working in a commercial firm
One person went to worship in the church
l) English vowel N°12: [ə]

Description

- height of tongue : between open-mid and close-mid

- part of tongue which is highest : the central part
- position of lips : neutral

Spellings of[ə]

Graphemes Examples
A Woman, about, affect
O oblige
E Gentlemen
er, re Mother, waiter, grocer, batter
ar, or, our Particular, doctor, colour

Repetition and transcription of sentences with short vowels

1 Six fat men stopped
2 That bus is full
3 Tim hid Jan’s bag

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4 This dog gets cats mad

5 Bring back ten cups
6 Tom picked up twelve books
7 What bad luck
8 Ken pushed Sam’s truck

3-2-2-Gliding vowels /ˈglaɪdɪŋ ˈvaʊəlz/

There are two types of gliding vowels in English : diphthongs and triphthongs.

3-2-2-1 - Diphthongs /ˈdɪfθɒŋz/

A diphthong (also called gliding vowel) is a monosyllabic vowel (a single vowel sound or
phoneme) which is a combination involving a quick and smooth movement from one vowel
to another. In other words, a diphthong is articulated by gliding, moving from one position
of the mouth to another within the same syllable as with
[aɪ] in eye [ˈaɪ] and dinosaur [ˈdaɪnəsɔːr]
[əʊ] in chosen [ˈtʃəʊˈzɛn] and spoken [ˈspəʊkən]
[eɪ] in mail [ˈmeɪl] and sailor [ˈseɪlər]
There are eight diphthongs in modern English Language: three centring ones (all ending in
[ə]) and five closing ones (with three ending in [ɪ] and two ending in [ʊ]) as displayed in
figure n° 15

Figure n° 16 : Diphthongs

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3-2-2-2 - Triphthongs /ˈtrɪfθɒŋ/

Following the same process as the one previously described for diphthongs, triphthongs
are made with one additional glide to a third vowel sound, the whole of them representing
one monosyllabic vowel. A practical way of considering English triphthongs is by seeing
them as composed of the previously mentioned five closing diphthongs with the mid-
central vowel [ə] (schwa) at the end as follows :

- [eɪə] as in player [ˈpleɪər] layer [ˈleɪər] payer [ˈpeɪə]

- [aɪə] as in flier [ˈflaɪər] tired [ˈtaɪərd] tyre [ˈtaɪə]
- [ɔɪə] as in employer [ɪmˈplɔɪər] soya [ˈsɔɪə] loyal [ˈlɔɪəl]
- [əʊə] as in lower [ˈləʊər] mower [ˈməʊər] slower [ˈsləʊər]
- [aʊə] as in tower [ˈtaʊər] power [ˈpaʊər] hour [ˈaʊər]

English Phonetics Course for 1st Year Students