Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faculty of Arts
Department of English
and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Petra Jureková
2015
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
……………………………………………
Author’s signature
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I would like to express gratitude to my supervisor, PhDr. Kateřina Tomková, Ph.D., and
thank her for her advice, patience, kindness and help. I would also like to thank all the
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Table of content
List of tables......................................................................................................................5
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................7
1.2.2. Pronunciation...............................................................................................8
2.1.1. Vowels.......................................................................................................11
2.1.2. Consonants................................................................................................15
2.2.1. Stress..........................................................................................................23
2.2.2. Rhythm......................................................................................................27
4
3.1.2. Suprasegmental level.................................................................................37
4. Practical section.......................................................................................................49
4.1. Procedure..........................................................................................................49
4.2. Recordings........................................................................................................50
4.3. Results...............................................................................................................52
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................60
Reference list...................................................................................................................63
Summary (English)..........................................................................................................66
Summary (Czech)............................................................................................................67
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List of tables
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1. Introduction
communication
opportunities, to be able to communicate with the outer world and also to understand it
better. The English language has spread to such an extent that it has penetrated into
almost every sphere of life. Apart from travelling, English also plays a major role in the
entertainment industry, since it is the most preferred language for films, songs and
games (Foley, 2007, p. 3). David Crystal, famous writer, editor and lecturer, says that:
English is the language of international air traffic communication, and its usage
Crystal further remarks that English stands out from other languages since it has
become the worldwide lingua franca of interaction. People from countries where
English is not their native language are trying to learn English to be able to participate
in international activities (as cited in Short et al., 2001, p. 3). Mastering the English
language can have an essential role in people’s careers, too. There are three main ways
of making professional use of speaking English well. (a) English as a global language
gives people the opportunity to go and work abroad since the knowledge of it is often
enough, even in countries with the first language other than English. (b) Another
possibility is to apply for a better paying position with a higher prestige in one’s native
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land as it is common nowadays that business companies belong to international trade
and cooperate with other countries and English can be a helpful tool for the
partnership. (c) The third possibility refers to teaching. As the number of those who
choose to learn English increases, the number of teachers needed for performing this
compulsory subject. However, based on the author’s own experience from Slovak
schools and the information gathered from Czech students, teaching of English
pronunciation at primary and secondary schools in both Slovak and Czech Republics
vocabulary and other features, but not to pronunciation (Tichý, 2014, p.6). Due to this,
those who try to achieve a good level of English often do not realize how important
1.2.2. Pronunciation
pronunciation speakers lose a certain degree of understandability and thus often the
purpose of the utterance is lost as well. For this very reason, even more attention should
known English phonetician A. C. Gimson (2008) at the beginning of his work suggests,
for the acquisition of spoken language skills of one’s mother tongue a long process
consisting in imitating the recurrent sound patterns is needed (p. 5). That implies more
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difficulties and often only a partial success in mastering a foreign language learnt later
in life (Gimson, 2008, p. 6). The different sound systems contain sounds often hardly
distinguishable for learners and not giving enough attention to correct pronunciation
meaning can easily be conveyed without the speaker having realized the mistake just
made.
With the increasing number of people learning English as their second language
all over the world, the importance of correct pronunciation of English should be taken
into consideration more intensively. Studying the sound system of the second language
necessary step in order to achieve the highest possible level of good pronunciation, and
Apart from making it more difficult for a listener or not passing a correct
message when speaking a foreign language with faulty pronunciation, there is another
disadvantage that may occur on the part of the speaker. It is generally known that the
way a person speaks can produce certain attitudes in a listener. These attitudes
sometimes happen to be negative when some kinds of prejudices against the speaker are
The thesis deals with non-native speakers’ problems with acquiring English as a
second language pointing to pronunciation mistakes made while they are speaking.
attending University programmes in English and Russian in the Czech Republic, the
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author of the thesis analyses the most frequent pronunciation errors of Czechs,
Russians, and Slovaks when speaking English. The work then compares these errors
and since a mother tongue is naturally what from a big part influences the pronunciation
of a foreign language, the basic differences in the sound systems of these languages are
presented. Before anything else the theoretical section provides a chapter which gives a
short description of the English phonetic system. The main secondary sources used for
this chapter are Gimson’s Pronunciation of English and English Phonetics and
including its sounds and suprasegmental features, all described within the standard
pronunciation of English. The research is carried out to find out if they can hear any
differences when the respective Slavic accents are spoken and if the accents give any
The aim of the thesis is to identify possible common and different mistakes in
the English pronunciation of Czech, Slovak and Russian speakers, which can help
respective students to realize their specific errors and improve their language skills.
Another very important goal is to learn about native speakers’ perceptions of non-native
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2. English phonetic system
This section examines the English phonetic system on its basics, at first on
segmental and then also on suprasegmental level. The pronunciation described in this
work is the Received Pronunciation, RP. Despite the fact that RP itself can nowadays be
perceived also as a disadvantage, since in the past it was used only by higher classes and
it can be taken as an attempt to show social superiority, it has traditionally been used as
a model of pronunciation for learners of English (Gimson, 2008, pp. 77-79). RP is often
used in formal situations and its forms are usually most generally accepted and
understood, even by those who themselves do not speak it (Gimson, 2008, p. 77). RP
form is also the one used by authors of textbooks, educationalists and scientists as it is a
2.1.1. Vowels
which are pure vowels, as well as diphthongs, which are gliding vowels (Pavlík, 2000,
p. 61). English has twelve (relatively) pure vowels which can be, according to Roach
(1991), divided into short and long monophtongs (pp. 14, 18):
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Short monophtongs: Long monophtongs:
ɪ as in pit iː as in see
e as in pet uː as in too
æ as in bad ɑː as in car
ɒ as in not ɔː as in door
ʊ as in put ɜː as in word
ʌ as in bus
ə as in ago
However, these are only relatively short and relatively long vowels as “the length of all
English vowel sounds varies very much according to context (such as the type of sound
that follows them) and the presence or absence of stress“ (Roach, 1991, p. 18).
Nevertheless, it is practical to divide the vowels in this manner to see certain phonetic
sit – seat / ɪ - i: /
cut – cart / ʌ - ɑ: /
full – fool / ʊ - u: /
don – dawn / ɒ - ɔ: /
Pavlík (2000) states, “Special attention should be paid to the sound /æ/ which compared
to the length of the rest of English vowels, is sometimes classified as neutral, that is,
neither short nor long” (p. 65). The sound will be analysed more in detail later as well as
sound /ə/ which occurs only in unaccented syllables (Gimson, 2008, p. 92).
depends on the sound that directly follows the vowel. If the following sound is a
shortened, like in the word cat /kæt/ the vowel /æ/ is short and curt. On the contrary, if
does not get shorter and it sounds distinctly longer, like in a word bad /bæd/ (Melen,
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2010, p. 14). This means that short vowel followed by voiced consonant gets the same
length as has long vowel before voiceless consonant. Because of this dependence of the
English has eight diphthongs, sounds which involve movement or glide between
two vowels (Roach, 1991, p. 20). According to their endings they can be divided into
When the length is taken into consideration, diphthongs can be assigned as long vowels.
Perhaps the most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that
the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part; for example, most
of the diphthong aɪ (as in the words ‘eye’, ‘I’) consists of the a vowel, and only
in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide to ɪ become noticeable.
As the glide to ɪ happens, the loudness of the sound decreases. As a result, the ɪ
part is shorter and quieter. Foreign learners must, therefore, always remember
that the last part of English diphthongs must not be made too strongly. (p. 20)
The sound /æ/ is a very specific sound of English phonetic system. It does not
appear in Czech or Russian language, the two of Slavic languages involved in the thesis,
and only similar form of the sound can be found in Slovak language, yet it is very rarely
used. That is why it can make difficulties to the foreign learners, and so it is important
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Because of the raising of the front part of the tongue when æ is pronounced, the
sound is an open front vowel. The description of the vowel according to Gimson (2008)
is:
The mouth is more open than for /e/; the front of the tongue is raised to
a position midway just above open, with the side rims making a very slight
contact with the back upper molars; the lips are neutrally open. (p. 112)
The English /æ/ has always been considered to be a ‘short’ vowel. However,
besides some of the features of the short vowels, it also shows some attributes of long
vowels. For instance, just as the other short vowels, it cannot take a final position and it
occurs before /ŋ/. On the other hand, similarly as the long vowels, it is not included as
an element in the gliding vowels or diphthongs and its quantitative attributes classify it
more as the long vowels (Skaličková, 1974, p. 30). According to Gimson (2008), “The
length of the vowel /æ/ varies considerably and is often almost as long as that of the
long vowels” (p. 92). He also states, “Such lengthening is particularly apparent before
voiced consonants, e.g. in cab, bad, bag, badge, man; /æ/ in these contexts is almost
equivalent to the long vowels, so badge /bædʒ/ and barge /bɑːdʒ/ have vowels of
From the frequency point of view, the mixed vowel /ə/ or schwa is the most
common sound in English (Melen, 2010, p. 20). As Gimson (2008) and Skaličková
(1974) state in their works it is a very typical vowel of English unaccented syllables and
both of them define it as a central vowel with neutral lip position (p. 132; p. 40).
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However, pronunciation of schwa in various words is not exactly the same. Gimson
(2008) discusses two main variations of the articulation of schwa. The first one is in
non-final positions, as in the words ɑlone or afterwɑrds, which means raising of the
tongue between open-mid and close-mid. The other one is in final positions, as in the
words mother or doctor, where “the vowel may be articulated in the open-mid central
position. The acoustic formants of /ə/ are, therefore, likely to be similar to those for /ɜ:/
or /ʌ/ according to the situation” (p. 132). Skaličková (1974) describes the feature as the
The schwa sound is often used in unstressed grammar words such as articles and
prepositions: the, for, from, above... It can also replace any vowel sound if a syllable
which includes the vowel becomes unstressed (Skaličková, 1974, p. 41). For example in
the word ‘man’ the letter ‘a’ is pronounced with its full sound /æ/ but in the word
‘fireman’ the syllable ‘man’ is not stressed and the /æ/ sound is replaced by schwa.
2.1.2. Consonants
by their positions in syllables as the units that form the edges of the syllables (Melen,
2008, p. 157; Melen, 2010, p. 27). When investigating consonants in more detail, the
question of defining the consonantal sounds proves to be not so clear. For example,
although the sound /h/ does not block the airstream more than some vowels do, it ranks
among the consonants. Another more complex units are the sounds /j/ and /w/ which are
formed in a similar way as vowels and are sometimes called semi-vowels, and /r, l, m,
n, ŋ/ which can have sonant quality typical of vowels (Melen, 2010, p. 27). However,
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the thesis does not follow up all these issues. Similarly, as in the section on vowels, the
consonants with their main aspects are briefly introduced and only few sounds are
examined in detail. These are the sounds that do not exist in the phonetic systems of
Czech, Russian and Slovak languages and may be difficult to learn and put into
practical use.
Based on their sonority they can be classified into voiced and voiceless
consonants (Melen, 2010, p. 28). The tables below show the review of the consonants
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n nose funny soon
ŋ longing sing
r red terror care
j you beyond
w wall outward
However, the sonority of the voiced consonants can be very weak. Especially in
initial and final position it is scarcely audible at all. Thus some phoneticians suggest
using the terms lenis and fortis which regard more the aspect of the articulatory
strength. Lenis with the meaning ‘weak’ is used for voiced consonants since they are
produced with less articulatory energy and last shorter. Voiceless consonants are then
called fortis which means ‘strong’ because they last longer and more force is needed for
happens where /p, t, k/ are in initial position of a syllable and especially in accented
syllables followed by a vowel (Gimson, 2008, p. 161). Pavlík (2000) defines it as “an
(p. 88). Missing aspiration can change the meaning of the word since it is a main feature
that distinguishes voiceless plosives from the voiced ones (Pavlík, 2000, p. 88). If for
example a word pet is pronounced without aspiration, that is [pet] instead of [phet], the
initial plosive may not be correctly recognised, and the word will more likely sound like
bet. The most conspicuous aspiration occurs with /k/, and the weakest with /p/ (Melen,
2010, p. 30). The aspiration also operates when /p, t, k/ are followed by /l, r, j, w/, by
the devoicing of /l, r, j, w/ such as in the words try, class, crab compared with dry,
glass, grab (Gimson, 2008, p. 162). On the other hand, voiceless plosives lose the
aspiration when they follow /s/ in a stressed position, e.g. in stay, sky, speak (Pavlík,
2000, p. 88).
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It is important to observe that even though the voiced or lenis consonants lose
their voicing when they stand in final position, they do not become completely voiceless
and cannot be pronounced as their voiceless pairs. As Gimson (2008) explains the
reason is shortening of vowels before voiceless consonants while keeping the full length
of vowels preceding the voiced consonants, so for example, the /ʌ/ of bug is longer
(2008):
The soft palate being raised and the nasal resonator shut off, the tip and rims of
the tongue make a light contact with the edge and inner surface of the upper
incisors and a firmer contact with the upper side teeth, so that the air escaping
between the forward surface of the tongue and the incisors causes friction (such
friction often being very weak in the case of /ð/). (p. 195)
Skaličková (1974) in her work states that there are textbooks which describe formation
of /ð/ and /θ/ as interdental (p. 99) which means that the position of tip of the tongue is
in between the teeth. However, Roach (1991) claims it is a way of teachers to teach
their students to make the sound (p. 49). Correctly the tongue should be placed behind
the teeth (Melen, 2010, p. 34). The lip position varies a little according to the adjacent
vowel. For example, for the word thief the lip is spread but for the word truth it is more
The sound /θ/ is voiceless, longer and shortens the preceding vowel; /ð/ is
voiced, shorter and does not shorten the preceding vowel (Melen, 2010, p. 35). The
spelling of the two dental fricatives is always th. The rules for pronouncing /ð/ or /θ/
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when th occurs in a word are a bit complex. Here are a few examples which Melen
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Table 3: Pronunciation of /ð/ or /θ/ when th occurs
/ð/ /θ/
In grammar words such as the In the other cases:
TH word-initial articles, pronouns, conjunctions: think, thumb, thought
the, this, that, than, though
In the words of Germanic origin: In the words of non Germanic
TH word-medial father, brother, gather origin: method, author,
sympathy
When there is ‘e’ written at the In some other words:
end: path, cloth, fourth
TH word-final bathe, clothe
Most frequently in verbs:
to mouth, smooth, bequeath
2.1.2.2. /w/
The sound /w/ does not occur in any of the three Slavic languages and its
familiar to all three languages. In English there is a huge difference between /w/ and /v/.
They are completely different sounds and interchanging them might alter the whole
meaning of a word. For example, pronunciation of the word wet with /v/ at the
/w/ has common relations with the u-ish articulations and as it was already
the initial phase of /w/ the lips are strongly rounded similarly as when /u:/ is
pronounced. Characteristic of this sound is its final stage which makes the basic
difference and that is when the lips come loose and at the same time the switch to the
first phase of the following vowel is realised. /w/ is produced with both lips, so it is
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2.1.2.3. /ŋ/
Although the sound /ŋ/ is not completely unknown to the three Slavic languages,
the velum by the back of the tongue a closure is formed. The soft palate is lowered,
allowing the air to escape through the nasal cavity. The lip position varies depending on
the preceding vowel. Apart from a few cases of devoicing, /ŋ/ bears an attribute of
/ŋ/ does not occur in initial positions but medial and final positions are frequent.
In those two latter positions /ŋ/ is sometimes pronounced with a plosive following it and
sometimes without it. Words including written ‘nk’ such as ankle, sink or thinker are
pronounced with /ŋk/. However, it gets more complicated with words containing the
letters ‘ng’. When ‘ng’ occurs in the final position it is pronounced as /ŋ/ without /g/ at
the end of the word: tongue - [tʌŋ], long - [lɒŋ], sing - [sɪŋ], etc. (Roach, 1991, pp. 57-
58). Medially Roach (1991) distinguishes a few basic rules according to which ‘ng’ is
2. /ŋg/ in the comparative and superlative forms of the adjectives such as in longer,
3. /ŋ/ if the word can be grammatically divided so that /ŋ/ is found at the end of
Skaličková in her work adds another case of ‘ng’ or ‘nk’ occurring in a word. She states
that if a prefix con- appears before /k, g/, its pronunciation depends on the stress
position in the word. If the stress is on the syllable which follows the prefix,
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pronunciation is usually with alveolar /n/ as in a word congratulate - [kənˈgrætjʊˌleɪt],
but if the syllable following the prefix is unstressed, the prefix is usually pronounced
more than one word” (p. 263). There are several features which characterize the
connected speech and which need to be taken into consideration to achieve a good level
the other hand, to sound as correct and intelligible as possible it is necessary to know
what the phonetic aspects are when phonemes are combined into words and words into
features which “stretch over more than a single segment – possibly a syllable,
a complete word or phrase, whole sentences, or even more” (Collins & Mees, 2008, p.
124). They include rhythm, stress, assimilation, liaison, elision, intonation etc.
Skaličková (1974) in her work cites several phoneticians who emphasize the
work Stress, Rhythm and Intonation argues, “Many students learn to make the
individual sounds correctly enough, yet their speech remains barely intelligible to the
English ear. The reason for this paradox is usually to be found in faulty rhythm and
intonation” (p. 124). Or W. S. Allen who in his Living English Speech states that
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Some of the suprasegmental features are discussed more often in various works on
phonetics while some of them are considered to be less important. This work focuses
only on some of the above mentioned aspects which seem most relevant for the work.
2.2.1. Stress
loudness, higher pitch, and longer duration” (“stress,” 2015). Gimson (2008) besides
these three factors states also the forth one – quality of the vowels (p. 236). All these
four factors cause certain parts or syllables to be more prominent; however, some of
them seem to have more significance. As stated by Gimson (2008) “it is principally
pitch change which marks an accented syllable” (p. 236). Also Roach (1991) in his
work asserts that “these factors are not equally important; the strongest effect is
produced by pitch, and length is also a powerful factor. Loudness and quality have
Pitch assigns the degree of highness of sounds as perceived by a human. The most
important factor which governs the quality of the sounds is the rate of vibration or
frequency of the vocal folds (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 133). Collins and Mees (2008)
state that “the higher the frequency, the higher the perceived pitch” (pp. 124, 133) and
The other factor which on the part of the listener is loudness would be intensity.
The level of intensity depends on how much breath effort and muscular energy are
expended by the speaker. The greater effort and energy means the stronger intensity and
that associates with the stressed syllables (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 124), although, as
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mentioned before, loudness is not so significant in determining the stress in English
unstressed syllables. Vowel reduction is realized when “the peripheral vowel in the
sometimes by /ɪ/ or /ʊ/, or even a syllabic consonant, e.g. attention [əˈtenʃn]” (Collins &
Mees, 2008, p. 124). The quality of the vowels in a word changes if the placement of
the stress changes. When compared the noun present [ˈprezənt] to the verb (to) present
[prəˈzent] the peripheral vowel /e/ can be found in the first syllable of the noun but in
the second syllable of the verb. The opposite can be seen with the central vowel /ə/.
This means that the peripheral vowel /e/ occurs in the stressed syllables while the
central vowel /ə/ occurs in the unstressed syllables instead. Thus, vowel reduction
causes the unstressed syllables to be less prominent (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 124).
Mees (2008) when compared the length of the vowel in two words with different
stresses: sarcasm [ˈsɑːkæzəm] and sarcastic [sɑˈkæːstɪk] (p. 125). In spite of the fact
Gimson (2008) states, “Despite the lesser prominence of all short vowels, a long vowel
Collins and Mees (2008) distinguish between word stress and sentence stress (p.
124). The latter one is meant as the stress in connected speech involving the subject of
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2.2.1.1. Word stress
In English each individual word carries its own stress when it stands in isolation.
In contrast to some languages which have regular stress pattern, English stress can
occur in different positions depending on each individual word. Gimson (2008) claims
the stress pattern to be both fixed and free. With certain exceptions stress has always its
particular place in any given word and therefore it is fixed, but it is free when taken into
consideration that in general there is no particular syllable on which stress falls (p. 235).
There can be more levels of stress. In some words besides the main stress (also
called primary or principal stress) occurs a syllable which is not as strongly stressed as
the one with the main stress but still carries more prominence than the unstressed
syllable. This is assigned as a secondary stress. For example, the word photographic
would be transcribed as [ˌfəʊtəˈgræfɪk] where the first syllable carries the secondary
stress, represented by a low vertical line, while the primary stress is as usually indicated
by a vertical line at the top just before the stressed syllable (Roach, 1991, p. 87).
Although there exist some rules on English stress patterns, they involve too many
exceptions and so it is very hard for a foreign learner to predict the main stress of the
words just from the written form. The rules are very complex and this thesis does not
focus on them for the sake of the given extent and also for the sake of complexity and
beliefs of certain phoneticians that it is better for the foreigners to learn the stresses by
force given to the different words in a sentence” (as cited in Pavlík, 2000, p. 181). The
degree of the force depends on how important the word in the sentence is i.e. how much
25
information it conveys. Generally the more information the word carries the more
stressed it becomes. Based on this general rule, the words which convey only little
information often lose their stresses in connected speech. (Collins & Mees, 2008, p.
130; Pavlík, 2000, p. 181). These are usually function words which play important
structural role for the sentence but their lexical meaning is almost none. These involve
adverbs. Function words have their own stress when they stand isolated in which case
they are said to be in their strong form. However, they usually appear as the parts of
sentences in their weak unaccented forms (Pavlík, 2000, p. 173). By contrast there are
content words such as nouns, adjectives, main verbs, numerals and most adverbs in
which “lexical meaning prevails over their grammatical meaning” (Pavlík, 2000, p.
182). The difference can be seen on the example taken from Collins and Mees (2008, p.
130):
I’ve ˈheard that ˈJack and ˈJane ˈspent their ˈholidays in Jaˈmaica.
FF C F C F C C F C F C
(C = content word, F = function word)
When the function word is being used in its weak form, several phenomena can take
2. Obscuration of vowels: at / æt / → / ət /
There exist some cases when function words are used in their strong forms in
connected speech. This applies mainly to (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 130):
(a) wh-words where these form questions, e.g. where, why, how
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I said give it to ˈhim, not ˈher.
Collins and Mees (2008) also talk about the case when some of the content words
become unstressed which happens if the utterance is said at more rapid tempo (p. 130):
I've heard that ˈJack and ˈJane spent their ˈholidays in Jaˈmaica.
The use of the weak forms in English is very frequent and every learner of the
English language and its pronunciation should practise this phenomenon. The reason for
this is not only to achieve sounding more natural and more native-like but to be aware
of the weak forms means also better understanding of the speakers who use them
2.2.2. Rhythm
The feature which gives English an impression of being rhythmical and which is
the basis for the rhythm in English is sentence stress. English is assigned to a group of
languages called the stress-time languages (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 131). Pavlík
(2000) in his work states the definition by Crystal which says, “In stress-timed
languages, it is claimed that the stressed syllables recur at regular intervals of time,
regardless of the number of intervening unstressed syllables” (p. 186). Of course the
regularity is relative and the time period occurring between the stressed syllables is not
exactly the same but English has “a tendency towards taking an approximately equal
period of time between one stressed syllable and the next” (Pavlík, 2000, p. 187).
shortening some vowels due to the others. Gimson (2008) defines it as the rule of
English rhythm “whereby a syllable with a reduced vowel ‘borrows time’ from any
immediately preceding syllable containing a full vowel” (p. 265). In this way the
stressed syllables followed by reduced syllables become shortened while the other
stressed syllables are equally long and reduced syllables are equally short (Gimson,
27
2008, p. 265). The example by Collins and Mees (2008) shows the shortening of the
The ban's back in place The banner's back in The banister's back in
place place
/bænz/ /ˈbænəz/ /ˈbænɪstəz/
───── ──── • ─── • •
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3. Introduction to Czech, Slovak and Russian languages
Czech, Russian and Slovak all rank among the big group of Indo-European
languages called Slavic or also Slavonic languages (“Slavic languages,” 2015). This
Slavic language group is traditionally classified into three main branches which further
consist of several subgroups. The three main branches are East which include Russian
language, West which include both Slovak and Czech, and South as it can be seen in the
Eastern Bulgarian
South Macedonian
Western Serbo-Croat
Slovene
Czecho-Slovak Czech
Slovak
West Sorbian Upper Sorbian
Slavonic Lower Sorbian
Lechitic Polish
Cassubian
Russian
East Ukrainian
Belorussian
With regard to phonology, one of the most salient features of Slavonic languages is the
especially of the Russian language, are pairs of palatalized (soft) and non-palatalized
In the previous chapter the basics of English phonetic system were introduced.
Now the focus shifts to basic differences within the sound systems of the three
respective Slavonic languages when they are compared to English. These differences
are introduced and proceeding from them the most common errors made by the Czechs,
29
Slovaks and Russians in English pronunciation are stated as well. Since Slovak and
Czech belong to the same Slavic branch, and the same subgroup, the languages are very
close and share many similarities. Therefore, their phonetic systems are analysed
together in one chapter. Russian as another Slavonic language has certainly a lot in
common with the other two as well, but because of its placement in a different branch,
obviously, there are more distinctions and the language is discussed in a separate
subchapter.
3.1.1.1. Vowels
Both Slovak and Czech languages have in their phonetic systems fewer vowels
than English. In Czech there exist five simple short vowels with the set of five matching
Apart from few very little quality differences, Slovak pairs of long and short vowels are
Moreover, there exists one more short vowel /æ/. The sound is orthographically written
as ä. Although the vowel /æ/ belongs to the standard Slovak, it is not actively used.
(Kráľ, 1996, p. 92; Skaličková, 1974, p. 19). Considered the pairs, long vowels are
30
approximate ratio of 1:2 (Kráľ, 1996, p. 92; Skaličková, 1974, p. 19). Quality
differences of the sounds in each pair are hardly noticeable while in English they have
the primary importance. Considered the timbre, each of the five basic spheres – A-ish,
E-ish, I-ish, O-ish and U-ish – contain only two phonemes (excluding Slovak
vowel /æ/ ) which are distinguished by their quantity, thus the vowel quality can
extensively fluctuate and have different variations. In English each of the spheres is
represented by several phonemes which are distinguished by the timbre, thus the quality
variation has to be restricted and the individual phonemes must be pronounced more
accurately. (Skaličková, 1974, p. 19) This is often a problem for Czech and Slovak
learners of English to distinguish between the members of the vowel pairs and to
observe the different timber of the sounds (Kráľová, 2011, p. 25; Skaličková, 1982, p.
185). Influenced by their mother tongues they often focus on quantity but ignore the
One of the most frequent cases when the timbre differences are not correctly
observed is the case of /e – æ/. As a consequence of missing the sound /æ/ in their
system, Czech students often mispronounce words which contain this sound by
replacing it by the vowel /e/ (Skaličková, 1982, p. 185). The fact that Slovak phonetic
system contains sound similar to English /æ/ could seem as a certain advantage for
Slovak learners when compared to Czech. However, as it was already mentioned /æ/ is
used by almost none of the Slovak speakers and even in their language it is frequently
substituted for /e/. Thus the Slovaks tend to do the same mistake and replace the vowel
/æ/ by /e/ when speaking English (Kráľová, 2011, p. 25). In English this kind of
mispronunciation can in many cases lead to change of meaning, for example, if the
word bad is pronounced as /bed/ instead of its correct pronunciation /bæd/, the word
gets completely different meaning. The basic thing that needs to be realized when /æ/ is
31
pronounced is that “the mouth is more open than for /e/” (Gimson, 2008, p. 112). Based
on the author’s experience, this little hint is a big step forward in achieving the aimed
pronunciation.
Length makes certain difficulties for Czech and Slovak students too. Since their
languages have only two grades of length, students tend to pay not enough attention to
the different grades of length of English vowels influenced by the following consonant
and pronounce them with incorrect duration (Kráľová, 2011, p. 25). For example, the
words bit, bid are pronounced with an equally short length or words beat, bead with an
equally long length instead of shortest length in bit, middle length in bid and beat and
influence on English pronunciation of Czech and Slovak speakers is the quality of the
vowels in accented and unaccented syllables. Neither Czechs nor Slovaks in their
systems distinguish diverse vowel quality between accented and unaccented syllables
and in both cases vowels maintain their acoustic qualities. English, in contrast, is
which vowels are reduced to the sounds /ə/ or /ɪ/ (Kráľová, 2011, p. 23; Skaličková,
1961, p. 16). However, Czech and Slovak phonetic systems do not involve the mixed
vowel /ə/ either and thus Czechs and Slovaks are often not aware enough of its timber
and replace it by the vowel /e/ (Kráľová, 2011, p. 25; Skaličková, 1982, p. 186).
Relevant differences which also need to be taken into consideration are articulation
differences of which the most important one consists in the position of the tongue. In
Czech and Slovak tongue is in so called convex position i.e. the tip of the tongue is
practically always in contact with the floor of the mouth cavity. In English, on the other
hand, the tip of the tongue is loose, oriented upwards and only rarely comes into contact
32
with the bottom of the mouth i.e. the tongue is in so called concave position (Melen,
3.1.1.2. Consonants
the table below placed in different groups according to the place and manner of their
There are 27 consonantal phonemes in the Slovak phonetic system (Short, 2002b, p.
537). Among them there are palatalized l (ľ), long r (ŕ) and long l (ĺ) which are missing
in Czech. Slovak system does not contain Czech trilled ř. Similarly as the Czech
phonemes, Slovak ones are shown in the table below organized into groups according to
classification by Kráľ (1996) based on the place and manner of their articulation (p. 49):
33
Table 7: System of Slovak consonantal sounds
discovered that in all three systems there are almost equal numbers of consonantal units:
Czech and Slovak systems of consonants are taken as one and compared to English,
there can be found consonants which are quite similar and can be put into comparable
In spite of their apparent similarities, in each pair there are substantial distinctions.
Besides them, in each of the languages exist consonants which do not have their rough
equivalents in the system of the other language. For the thesis English consonants which
do not exist in Czech and Slovak are relevant since they are presumptive source of
voiced and voiceless pairs: b/p, d/t, ď/ť, dz/c, dž/č, z/s, ž/š, g/k, h/ch, v/f which are
subjects to assimilation (Kráľová, 2011, p. 23; Skaličková, 1974, p. 64). Among the
34
most frequent errors of Czech and Slovak speakers in English pronunciation is
substitution of voiced consonants for their voiceless counterparts. This habit again
arises from pronunciation within their mother tongues for which such replacements are
typical. In Czech and Slovak the realization of the consonantal phonemes before a pause
is neutralized and the obstruents are pronounced as their voiceless counterparts: zub –
/zup/ (tooth) (Krčmová, 1999, p. 127; Short, 2002b, p. 535). The same happens to
Czech and Slovak speakers in English but there such substitution can easily lead to
a change of meaning. For example, when the word sad is realized as /sæt/ it denotes the
word sat instead (Melen, 2010, p. 72). Similarly, influenced by the Czech and Slovak
language when voiced and voiceless sounds meet assimilation is regressive i.e. the latter
(argument)
When the same is applied to English again the meaning can be changed, as for example,
when the word backbone is incorrectly pronounced as /bægbəʊn/ (Melen, 2010, p. 72).
Such mispronunciations can easily lead to confusions, therefore, the Czech and Slovak
speakers should be aware of these differences and should try to suppress the influence
Yet another problem arises, especially for Slovak learners. In the Slovak
language the sound /v/ is sometimes pronounced as non-syllabic bilabial /u̯/. One of the
cases when this pronunciation is applied is when /v/ is in its final position e.g. in a word
krv (blood) which is pronounced as /kru̯/ (Kráľ, 1996, p. 110). As a consequence of this
feature, Slovaks tend to mispronounce the final /v/ in English resulting in confusing
35
pronunciation. For example, a word love pronounced with the /u̯/ at the end would be
perceived more as a word law. This might seem as a little disadvantage for Slovak
speakers since Czechs do not have this feature in their language. However, Czechs in
these cases tend to mispronounce the words in a different way. Based on above
a pause, they pronounce there labiodental constrictive /f/ what can also lead to
miscomprehension, e.g. the word love pronounced with the /f/ at the end could be
which concerns three English fortis plosives /p, t, k/ but does not occur within the Czech
or Slovak sound systems. Consequently, when Czech and Slovak speakers speak
English, these three consonants are often pronounced incorrectly without the aspiration
what results in sounding as if their fortis opposites were pronounced (Kráľová, 2011, p.
23; Melen, 2010, p. 72). This means that the aspiration must be given more attention
when they are speaking English otherwise they can be very easily misunderstood. For
Naturally, since the dental fricatives /θ, ð/ are unknown for the phonetic system
of Czechs and Slovaks, they are often a source of mispronunciation as well. It is not
unusual to hear the sounds /d/ or /t/ being pronounced in the positions where /ð, θ/
should take place. The issue is not only incorrect pronunciation but such a substitution
can sometimes cause a shift of meaning as for example in the words: /ðen/ (later) –
/den/ (lair). Another frequent case is when the pronunciation of /θ, ð/ is attempted but its
articulation is realized incorrectly with the tongue being placed in between the teeth
36
For Czech and Slovak learners of English also the velar nasal occlusive /ŋ/
appears to be a problematic sound. In their phonetic system the sound /ŋ/ exists but in
words, it occurs only as an allophone of /n/ before a velar (/k,g/) as in a word banka
[baŋka] (bank). This fact explains Czech and Slovak’s unfamiliarity with the
pronunciation of /ŋ/ in other cases, especially in its final positions or when followed by
a vowel. The result is that, for example, instead of words sing /sɪŋ/, rang /ræŋ/ are
pronounced the words sin /sɪn/ or sink /sɪŋk/, ran /ræn/ or rank /ræŋk/ which have
sound /w/. They usually do not have problems with its correct realization but they often
do not distinguish between /v/ and /w/ and mix up the sounds. However, in English
these two sounds exist as two individual units which distinguish meanings of the words:
vale /veɪl/ – whale /weɪl/, vile /vaɪl/ – while /waɪl/. (Kráľová, 2011, p. 26; Skaličková,
1982, p. 189).
When a word stress is taken into consideration, in case of the Czech and Slovak
languages there is nothing complicated about it. Unlike in English, Czech and Slovak
stress is fixed, in individual words always falling on the first syllable (Kráľ, 1996, p.
163; Krčmová, 1999, p. 140). This becomes a problem when the Czechs and Slovaks
speak English since they are not used to paying attention to different stress patterns.
Similarly, Pavlík (2000) points out placement of the stress within a word as one of the
main problems that the learners of English are faced with and the Czechs and Slovaks
37
are no exceptions (p. 146). At the schools their attention is not drawn to the importance
of the English stresses thus they often ignore the aspect when they learn new words. As
a consequence they tend to stress the first syllables as they do in their mother tongues or
they place the stress in incorrect positions which can lead to misunderstandings
(Mocova, 2012, p. 39). In Czech and Slovak, stress only signalizes the start of a new
word (Skaličková, 1961, p. 66; Kráľ, 1996, p. 164) but in English it can distinguish the
meanings of words e.g. if words incite /ɪnˈsaɪt/ and insight /ˈɪnˌsaɪt/ were pronounced
without the correct stressing, they would sound completely identical (Pavlík, 2000, p.
143). Word stress in English can also have a grammatical function i.e. it can distinguish
parts of speech of the words with identical spellings e.g. if words as contrast, object,
progress are stressed on the first syllable [ˈkɒntrɑːst], [ˈɒbdʒɪkt], [ˈprəʊgres] they
determine the nouns but if they are stressed on the second syllable [kənˈtrɑːst], [əb
ˈdʒekt], [prəˈgres] they determine the verbs (Pavlík, 2000, p. 156). Generally, the
difference between the stressed and unstressed syllables is stronger and more noticeable
to the rhythm. Here arises another troublesome aspect and often the origin of
unintelligibility in Czech and Slovak speakers. Since the difference of the English and
Czech or Slovak rhythm is substantial, the incorrect use of rhythm is a very frequent
3.1.2.2. Rhythm
Slovak the foot i.e. a unit of rhythm which “begins with a stressed syllable and includes
all following unstressed syllables up to (but not including) the following stressed
38
syllable” (Roach, 1991, p. 121) is formed on the basis of the word stress. Also in Czech
and Slovak there are words which are unstressed when they are part of a text, so called
enclitic words, such as chiefly past and conditional auxiliaries and weak personal
pronouns (Kráľ, 1996, p. 165; Krčmová, 1999, p. 140). Thus the foot can be formed by
one word as well as by more words from which only one is stressed and the others are
enclitic. The foot is a rhythmical unit and its extent is not identical to a semantic unit
(Krčmová, 1999, p. 141). However, since the enclitic words do not appear in Czech and
Slovak sentences as often as in English sentences (Skaličková, 1982, p. 174) and since
the Czech and Slovak languages have the word stress always on the first syllable
signalling the word boundary, it is almost a rule that their feet have their separate
meanings:
In English this is not a typical case and it often happens that the foot begins and ends in
the middle of a semantic unit as can be seen in the example by Skalíčkova (1982, p.
171):
[ˈpɪərɪəl rɪ ]
Here the foot is incomprehensible without the adjacent feet [ɪmˈpɪərɪəl rɪˈspɒns].
attract stress and becomes a part of the word, hence │ˈke stolu│ (‘to the table’) or │ˈna
usually becomes a function word and only the content word which follows the
preposition is the one which becomes stressed. Content words in English are often
preceded by the articles or prepositions which grammatically belong to the word but
39
phonetically belong to the previous rhythmical unit (Skaličková, 1982, p. 172):│ˈGive it
to the │ ˈboy │.
Under the influence of their mother tongues, Czechs and Slovaks often do not
consider the rhythmical units but try to look for the semantic units and since they do the
same in their native languages, they tend to make pauses between the semantic units in
Czech and Slovak speakers do not pay enough attention to the quantitative
differences of the syllables, neither to the fact that the longer the foot is the shorter the
syllables within it are (borrowing rule) (Skalčková, 1982, p. 183). Disruption of English
rhythm is also caused by the absence of vowel reductions (Skaličková, 1982, p. 190).
Neither in the Czech nor in the Slovak languages occur any reductions in unstressed
syllables. In both stressed and unstressed syllables the vowels have the same quality.
This is not the case in English where only the stressed syllables have the full quality
vowels (Skaličková, 1982, p. 173). By not reducing the vowels the quantitative and
rhythmical characteristics of the units are disturbed and thus English pronunciation of
Russian phonology is based mainly on its two phenomena which are stress in
40
3.2.1. Segmental level
3.2.1.1. Vowels
most of the linguists regard /ɨ/ only as a variation of the vowel /i/ which means that they
recognize five vowel phonemes (Oliverius, 1974, p. 84). However, more vowel sounds
can easily be heard because the phonemes have a number of allophones. They vary
consonants, on the location of accent and the degree of reduction (Jones & Ward, 1969,
p. 28).
ю, и. These can be put into pairs: а-я, э-е, о-ё, у-ю, ы-и where each pair represents one
vowel sound. The second letters of the pairs indicate that the preceding consonant is
palatalized i.e. it “has a [j] pronounced directly after it and before the vowel” (Marren,
Despite the numerous variations of the sounds, the vowel system of the Russian
language is not as complicated as the vowel system of English. The Russian sound
system does not have long vowels which are present in English. The length of a vowel
depends on the stress i.e. if the vowel is under stress or not (Romportl, 1973, p. 5).
Similarly as in Czech and Slovak, in Russian the sound /æ/ is missing. Considering
these facts it is likely to hear Russian speakers having problems with the length of
Gimson (2008) states that “the main difficulty for all those whose own languages have a
less complex vowel system than English lies in the establishment of the qualitative
oppositions /ɪ/-/e/-/æ/-/ʌ/“ (p. 114) from which the opposition /e/-/æ/ should be
emphasized. This means that equally as Czech and Slovak learners the Russians
41
encounter troubles with correct pronunciation of the sound /æ/. Affirmation of this kind
of error can be found in Collins and Mees’ (2008) “Survey of English pronunciation
phonemic contrast /e-æ/ is assigned as a highly significant problem area for the Russian
the stressed vowels only and it is not meaning-bearing. Quality is dependent on the
location of stress and the adjacent consonants (Havránek, Barnetová, & Leška, 1976, p.
syllables. This reduction is strong and the difference between the stressed and
vowels are replaced by the sound /ə/ or sometimes by /ɪ/, Russian reduction involves a
bit more complicated changes. Usually there are distinguished three degrees of
The 1st degree – in the syllable just before the stressed syllable
The 1st degree reduction is not as strong as the 2nd degree reduction and the strongest
reduction occurs in the vowel which is located immediately after the stress (Havránek et
al., 1976, p. 46). Qualitative reduction in Russian language can be particularly clearly
observed in the phonemes /o, e/. /o/ in unstressed position is realized as short, weak,
unlabialized sound which is something between a weak /o/ and a weak /ɑ/. The vowel
sound /e/ in unstressed syllable is realized as a weak unclear sound, something between
weak /e/ and weak /i/ (Oliverius, 1974, p. 58). However, there are a lot of realizations
distinguished by tiny differences which depend on the exact position of the unstressed
42
syllables in a word. Generally, in a simplified way, if the sounds /ɑ, o/ undergo the 1st
degree reduction resulting vowel is the sound /ɐ/. In case of the sound /e/ the result is /ɪ/.
When the 2nd degree reduction occurs in the syllable with /ɑ, o/ the resulting
3.2.1.2. Consonants
number from among so far mentioned languages (Oliverius, 1974, p. 103). The
exceeding number of the Russian consonants over the English consonantal sounds is
mostly constituted in the palatalized sounds which are absent in the English language.
Almost every Russian consonantal sound has its palatalized opposition: /m – mʲ/, /b –
bʲ/, /p – pʲ/, /v – vʲ/, /f – fʲ/, /l – lʲ/, /n – ɲ/, /d – dʲ/, /t – tʲ/, /z – zʲ/, /s – sʲ/, /r – rʲ/, /g –
gʲ/, /k – kʲ/, /x – xʲ/ (Oliverius, 1974, p. 103). These palatalized consonants which are
also known as soft consonants are produced when the front of the tongue is raised so as
system of voiced and voiceless consonants. This attribute associates again with the
of the voiced consonants at the end of the words is applied (Havránek et al., 1976, pp.
28-29). These features in the native language cause Russian learners troubles in their
English pronunciation. Wrong pronunciation of final fortis and lenis ranks among the
most often errors in Russian English (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 211). Since possible
misunderstandings on the part of the listener caused by such incorrect pronunciation are
the same as in case of Czech and Slovak speakers, the examples are not depicted again.
Similarly, from the following errors in Russian speakers several misunderstandings can
43
arise. When the errors overlap with those of the Czechs and the Slovaks the
Another difference between the English and Russian sound systems is related to
the matter of aspirated and not aspirated voiceless plosives. Not even in Russian the
stressed positions can be very often perceived (Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 211).
Despite the fact that the number of Russian consonants quite exceeds the number
of English consonants there are English sounds which in Russian consonantal system do
not exist. There are no dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ what results in incorrect
pronunciation of the sounds and sometimes in their substitution for /s/ and /z/. As with
the Czech and Slovak learners of English the /w/ and /v/ sounds are troublesome since
the Russians are not used to pronouncing the sound /w/ in their native language and they
often confuse it with /v/. Russian learners also have difficulties with accurate
pronunciation of the sound /ŋ/ which leads to incorrect pronunciation of the words like
In contrast to English, Czech or Slovak, the Russian language does not have the
sound /h/ in its system. Its pronunciation is ranked among significant errors in Russians
speakers. The fact of the absence of /h/ in their native language sometimes results in its
replacement by the closest Russian equivalent – the velar fricative /x/ (Collins & Mees,
2008, p. 211).
(Collins & Mees, 2008, p. 211). Speakers articulate an alveolar trill instead of an
alveolar approximant. The alveolar trill, commonly called the rolled r, is typical of
Russian language. The English alveolar approximant /ɹ/ is formed with the tip of the
tongue held against the rear part of the teeth ridge. The tongue in its position is not in
44
contact with upper molars (Gimson, 2008, p. 220). The position of the tip of the tongue
when the Russian rolled r is pronounced is further forward (Jones & Ward, 1969, p.
178). Pronouncing the alveolar trills in English is not a problem which would lead to
unintelligibility (Gimson, 2008, p. 223) but it marks Russian learners with a strong
foreign accent and it is ranked among ‘errors which evoke irritation or amusement’
Czech or Slovak but similarly as in English it is ‘free’ i.e. it can fall on any syllable of
a word. With different grammatical forms word stress in Russian can even become
‘mobile’ and change its position within one word. As already mentioned, the stress
a word correctly it is necessary to know the position of the stress (Avanesov, 1964, p.
22). The stress sometimes distinguishes words of identical sound structures e.g. if
a Russian word muka (мука) is stressed on the first syllable the meaning is torture but if
the second syllable of the word is stressed the meaning is flour. In Russian there are no
rules or patterns which would indicate the position of the stress in individual words. The
stress is learnt together with a word as its integral part (Jones & Ward, 1969, p. 212).
When the Russian and English aspects of word stress are compared they seem to share
their characteristics which could mean a certain advantage for the Russian learners of
English. However, although the characteristic of being ‚free‘ is for both languages
common, there are no any common word stress patterns for stressing the individual
words. Even the position of the stress in words which sound similar in Russian and
45
English are different e.g. a word student is stressed on the second syllable in Russian
but on the first syllable in English. Wrong placement of the stress can lead to
speakers. Nevertheless, there can be seen an advantage for the Russian learners of
English and that is the fact that they are raised to differentiate stress in words and
should understand the importance of stressing. If looked at the Collins and Mees’
(2008) table of English pronunciation errors, in case of the Russians he ranks the stress
3.2.2.2. Rhythm
stressed syllables occur at roughly equal intervals (Roach, 1991, p. 121). In Russian as
well as in English and the languages with strong dynamic stresses, almost all the energy
is used for the pronunciation of the stressed syllables, and the unstressed syllables are
left with not much energy. Therefore, their vowels weaken and change their quality i.e.
they are reduced (Oliverius, 1974, p. 55). Consequently, largely due to these strong
reductions, the rhythmic feet are not lengthy but very dynamic (Oliverius, 1974, p. 56).
Similarly as in the English language, Russian rhythmical unit is not always identical to
a semantic unit. Russian learners as those, whose native language belongs to the group
of stressed-time languages which are characteristic of strong stresses and reductions, are
expected not to have so many troubles with the English rhythm. The aspect of the
rhythm is marked as the area where in case of Russian speakers not so much difficulties
46
3.3. Comparison of the errors
If the errors of Czech, Slovak and Russian learners are compared there is not so
many differences observed. Despite a few distinctions, all three nationalities seem to
The errors which seem to be common for the speakers of all respective
vowels /e – æ/
Lack of aspiration
Consonant contrast in /v – w/
Mispronunciation of /ŋ/
The other errors might occur in speakers of all three nationalities too but appear
to be significant problem areas just to some of them. These include the vowel reduction
in unstressed syllables, which makes difficulties to the Czechs and the Slovaks (frequent
problem for the Russians since the reduction occurs in their own language as well.
Based on this and on the characteristics of the particular languages, weak forms and
rhythm cause less trouble to the Russians than to the Czechs or the Slovaks. On the
other hand, Russian learners have problems with the /h/ sound which they tend to
47
mispronounce as /x/ while it does not cause any troubles to the Czechs or the Slovaks.
The Russians also tend to substitute the alveolar approximant /ɹ/ for the rolled /r/.
All these errors can be summarized and according to the Collins and Mees’
48
4. Practical section
4.1. Procedure
The question about possible errors in Czech, Slovak and Russian pronunciations
of English was analysed and answered in the theoretical section. The practical section
now focuses on the other aim of the work, which is to find out about native speakers’
perception of the three respective Slavic nationalities when speaking English. Several
questions arise in connection to the matter. These are whether the native speakers
perceive different nationalities speaking, to what extent they perceive their foreign
accents and whether any of the respective nationalities have better pronunciation skills
than the other two. To answer the questions the following steps were taken.
At first the recordings of Czech, Slovak and Russian students were made. Total
number of six volunteer students (two of each nationality) participated in this part of the
survey. All the students were given the same short text which they were asked to read
aloud while they were recorded. The text was adopted from the internet page. The
attempt was to choose a text which would be neither too long nor boring and which
would include the specific English sounds that differ from the phonetic systems of the
other languages and thus are often mispronounced by foreign speakers. The full text is
included in the appendices. To get the most plausible results the students saw the text
for the first time when they read it and read it without any preliminary preparations.
The next step was formation of a questionnaire which was together with the six
recordings given to native speakers of English. The questionnaire was designed with the
personal info part about their gender, age and country where they come from was
involved. Respondents were then asked to listen to the recordings and to individually
49
rate each speaker. In the questionnaire recordings of the speakers were put in a scattered
order and subsequently they were given names “Speaker 1”, “Speaker 2”, “Speaker 3”
etc. as follows:
In the questionnaire there were six sets of the same questions asked (one set for each
recording) and to each set the corresponding title of the recording was assigned. The
sets included four closed questions in which respondents could choose an answer on the
scale from 1 to 5 where numbers indicated the intensity of the aspect mentioned by the
headword. The better the evaluated aspect was, the lower the number was. For instance
in the first point with the headword accentedness number 1 was determined as “native-
like” and number 5 as “very foreign”. The questionnaire included one open question
where the respondents could write their comments, impressions and recommendations
for the speakers’ pronunciations to improve. In the last question of each set participants
in the survey were asked to guess the nationality of individual speakers heard from the
recordings. They could choose from three options (Czech, Slovak or Russian). Finally at
the end of the whole questionnaire questions about the best and the worst speakers were
given. Preview of the questionnaire can be found in the appendices. There were ten
assessors who completed the survey. All of them were native speakers of English. This
4.2. Recordings
recordings is given. It has to be mentioned that pronunciation of the speakers was good
50
and there were not so many mistakes made. For future reference, full recordings were
Czech students were assigned as “Speaker 1” and “Speaker 3”. The errors made
by the Speaker 1 could be listed as follows. At first very noticeable problems are weak
word stresses, missing sentence stress and weak forms. Consequently, the rhythm is
missing. Speaker tends to pronounce the words separately, each in its strong form and
not as the rhythmical units. Final consonant devoicing in such words as [sed] or [hɜːd]
occurs. There is a weak aspiration in case of stressed p, t, k sounds. The sound /æ/ is not
open enough when pronounced and it is replaced by /e/. Voiced dental fricatives are
sometimes not pronounced correctly, particularly in the case of function words the
sound is replaced by /d/. -ing endings happen to be pronounced incorrectly and the
inconsistency in /v/ and /w/ occurs. Pronunciation of Speaker 3 is much better when the
rhythm and stressing the significant words are considered. However, the weak forms are
not always applied either. The vowel quality appears to be a problem too. The schwa
sound in unstressed positions is pronounced more like /e/, the timber difference between
/ɪ/ and /e/ makes difficulties and the vowel /ɜː/ is not pronounced completely correctly.
Again the sound /æ/ is mispronounced. Speaker pronounces p, t, k sounds in a right way
with their corresponding aspirations but dental fricatives within the function words and
of Speaker 4 does not include enough reductions in weak forms and in unstressed
pronounced more like /e/. The dental fricatives in the function words, and also within
the word [ɡæðəd], are pronounced as /d/. There is weak aspiration of the corresponding
consonants. Speaker 5 pronunciation errors are almost identical with the previous
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speaker: missing reduction in the weak forms and in unstressed syllables, replacement
of the vowel /æ/ by /e/ sometimes even by /a/ and pronunciation of /d/ instead of dental
fricatives in the function words. There is weak aspiration in case of the sound /k/ and –
Surprisingly, not even the Russians do the reductions in weak forms. Neither are the
stresses strong enough. Aspiration is weak. However the sound /æ/ seems to be more
openly pronounced then in case of the rest of the speakers. Interestingly, Speaker 2
pronounces some of the definite articles with the dental fricative but substitution for /d/
occurs too. In Speaker 6 happens to occur the substitution of /ð/ for /d/ and for /z/ as
well. Moreover Speaker 6 does not always succeed in correct pronunciation of /h/ sound
and the /x/ can be heard instead. The /z/ sound at the end of the words like was, days are
4.3. Results
The data from the questionnaire completed by the respondents have been
evaluation of the closed questions with the rating scales are made.
If the evaluations of the speakers are to be seen as the evaluations of the three
Slavic nationalities, for the practical reasons, the following groupings can be made:
The first question of each set asked the respondents to rate the speakers on their
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foreign’. The results for the question are given in Table 9. An average rate for each
speaker was calculated and afterwards speakers of the same nationalities were put
together according to the above mentioned groupings and the mean for each nationality
As for the question of accentedness, the results show that the mean for Czech
students’ rating is 3.45, for Slovak students it is 2.25 and for Russian students it is 3.15.
According to these results the Czechs come out as the most foreign sounding in the eye
of the respondents. The Russians are just behind them while the Slovaks seem to be the
least accented.
understand’ while number 5 was ‘difficult to understand’. The results for the question,
with the added mean of the values for each nationality, are presented in Table 10.
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Table 10: Rate of intelligibility
The table shows the Czechs and the Russians, with a negligible difference between
them, to be more difficult to understand on the part of the listener than the Slovaks. For
all three nationalities the rating of this question is better than the rating for the question
of accentedness. It follows that even though the foreign accent of speakers is easily
noticeable it does not necessarily make the speakers unintelligible. There are certain
Data from these two questions generally show that all three nationalities have
reached similar evaluations. Since all three languages belong to the group of Slavic
while the means for Czech and Russian speakers are almost the same, differing only in a
few decimal points, contrast between the average rates of Czech and Slovak speakers is
much bigger. This contrast is surprising because Czech and Slovak belong to the same
branch of West Slavic languages and have a lot in common while Russian belongs to
The third question also asked the respondents to rate the speakers on the scale
meant ‘very positive’ and 5 meant ‘very negative’. The results can be seen in the Table
11.
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Table 11: Rate of phonaestetic evaluation
In this question Russian students come out as the worst speakers. The mean for Czech
and Slovak students is almost equal. Interestingly, it does not correspond with the order
in the previous questions. This might mean that even though one speaker makes a lot of
errors and sounds not completely intelligible there might be mistakes in the other
speaker which are more irritable or unpleasant to hear even if there are just a few.
General overall assessment was the last of the closed questions. It was designed
to see if the general impression corresponds with the ratings of the previous aspects.
The ratings were basically almost equal to those of the phonaesthetic evaluation as it
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Table 12: General overall assessment
An open question was added with the aim to find out whether the listeners
realized what mistakes the speakers made, whether they had any specific impressions
about any of the speakers and to learn what would in the respondents’ opinions help the
only shortly, but positively, in the way encouraging the speakers, writing comments
like “It is ok”, “Just a few small mispronunciations”, “Pronunciation not bad, but
definitely needs practice”, “Yes, good! Just keep reading aloud to yourself, practice
makes perfect” etc. Moreover, there were some answers which commented on particular
Czech Speaker 1 was told to more clearly enunciate ‘th’ sounds in such words
like gathered and speaker’s “S’s were a bit hard to understand”. Interesting is that
look like a substantial mistake at first. However, the respondent’s indication points to
the importance of the vowel quality. Furthermore the speaker was advised to speak
slower. Comments on the errors of the other Czech speaker related to the vowels too.
One respondent wrote that “the ‘ack’ in backwards is pronounced oddly like ‘ick’
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bickwards” and also that “bent close was pronounced like bin close”. Other respondents
advised the speaker to work on the pronunciation of vowels and to speak slowly.
clearer since it “sounded more like a letter D”; also the word gathered was commented
to sound like ‘gadered’. Pronunciation of ‘th’ in the second Slovak speaker (Speaker 5)
was also said to be pronounced like ‘d’ and the emphasis on the syllables was
sometimes off. The speaker was furthermore advised to pronounce words ending with
Speaker 2 who was a Russian student was recommended to slow down, to make
the words more distinct and to pay attention to the place to pause in a sentence.
Moreover the emphasis on syllables was said to be often off. To the other Russian
speaker the respondents advised to practice the vowel sounds and two letters “like st, sh,
ch etc”, also not to roll words with ‘r’ and they commented on the pronunciation of fifth
The obvious problem of each nationality, easily heard by the natives, seems to
very frequent comment was the recommendation of slowing down. Sometimes maybe
students want to speak quickly with the aim to sound more native like. However, as it
can be seen from the advice, the speed is not the key aspect. It is about pronouncing the
substantial words distinctly and correctly while keeping to the correct stressing and
rhythm.
nationalities speaking. It seems that each of the speakers was rated individually and no
specific connections between the errors of two speakers of the same nationality can be
57
observed. The assumption can be developed by looking at the next question of the
survey.
The last question of each set asked the respondents to choose one out of three
possible nationalities for each speaker and in this way to guess where they come from.
Each speaker was matched with several nationalities e.g. Speaker 1 was guessed to be a
just two of them. The overview of the answers can be seen in Table 13.
speakers
In most of the speakers, the numbers of their guessed nationalities are in such ratios as:
representatives of just one nationality. Therefore, it seems that the respondents saw the
speakers more likely as a group of foreign speakers not distinguishing any specific
nationalities among them. Only in case of Speaker 3 and Speaker 4 the results could be
taken as significant. Out of 10 assessors 6 think that the Speaker 3 is Czech. In case of
Speaker 4 there are 7 people who think that the speaker is Slovak. Interestingly, both of
these guesses are correct. However no clarification for the choices was given.
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Another interesting observation is the fact that the least chosen nationality was
the Russian one. Since Czech and Slovak are very similar languages, fusion of the
speakers of these two languages is not surprising. However, the Russian speakers who
would be expected to stick out a bit, sounded for the assessors equally as the other two
nationalities. There is possibility that the respondents had expected the Russians to
sound more specifically and thus most of them did not assign the Russian nationality to
Based on the answers to the questions about the best and the worst speaker,
Czech Speaker 1 comes out as the worst while Slovak Speaker 4 seems to be the best.
However, neither of them was selected by more than half of the respondents – the
Czech was chosen 5 times as the worst speaker and the Slovak was labelled 4 times as
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5. Conclusion
The aim of the present thesis has been to explore the specific mistakes that
foreign learners of English make in their English pronunciation, with the focus being on
the Czech, Slovak and Russian speakers and the mistakes originating from their native
languages and to learn native speakers’ perceptions of these three nationalities speaking
English.
including its segmental and basics of the suprasegmental level is provided, with a focus
on particularly specific sounds and features of the language. In order to investigate the
most frequent errors of English pronunciation of the Czechs, the Slovaks, and the
Russians, a brief analysis of the main differences between English sound system and the
sound systems of the respective languages has been carried out. The errors have shown
to be almost identical in Czech and Slovak speakers, while in Russian speakers a few
different pronunciation mistakes have been identified. These occur mainly at the
segmental level while at the surpasegmental level the Russians appear to have fewer
difficulties, in particular with the reductions and the rhythm, than the Czechs or the
Slovaks.
The practical section consists in research which was carried out in order to
determine whether native speakers distinguish between the respective foreign accents of
English and how they perceive them. The results, due to a relatively small number of
60
participants with slightly different levels of English, do not aspire at being
After the evaluation and comparison of the results, several observations can be
deduced. As for the questions on accentedness and intelligibility, Slovak speakers have
come out as the ones with the weakest foreign accent and the most understandable
pronunciation. The Czechs were evaluated similarly as the Russians which is quite
surprising since the Russian language differs from the very similar Czech and Slovak
languages and thus the Russian speakers were expected to be perceived as distinctly
the Slovaks have attained the best scores too. The Czechs were behind them and the
Russians came last. However, it has to be said that even though the Slovaks have come
out as those with better pronunciation skills in English than the other two nationalities,
generally the differences in the ratings between the respective nationalities were not
substantial and thus the results cannot be taken as unequivocal. Moreover similar ratings
indicate that the speakers were perceived by the respondents as a group of foreign
speakers which were evaluated rather as six individuals and no differentiation among
The answers to the open question have shown that the assessors were not overly
critical of the speakers’ pronunciations. Some of the errors were identified and these
were mostly related to the vowel quality and the pronunciation of ‘th’. However, no
specific comments which would indicate that the speakers perceive any distinction
between the nationalities were found. The outcomes of the respondents’ guesses of the
nationality of each speaker also show that the assessors did not distinguish the three
different nationalities speaking and perceived all the speakers as similarly accented.
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Last, according to the advice that assessors gave to the speakers, high speed of
speech has proved not to be the way to better pronunciation. The advice was, above all,
to do more practice of vowels and other sounds and to slow down the pace of speech.
This observation leads to an interesting conclusion that it is not a high tempo that makes
a foreign speaker sound better and also that besides the appropriate pronunciation of
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Reference list
Collins, B., & Mees, I.M. (2008). Practical phonetics and phonology: A resource book
Comrie, B., & Corbett, G. G. (2002). The Slavonic languages. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Hodder Education.
Havránek, B., Barnetová, V., & Leška, O. (1976). Příruční mluvnice ruštiny pro Čechy
Jones, D., & Ward, D. (1969). The phonetics of Russian. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~joerg/Home/Jokes.html
nakladateľstvo.
univerzita.
Masarykova univerzita.
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Melen, D. (2010). Výslovnost angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Big Ben Bookshop
Prague.
37-39.
nakladatelství.
Roach, P. (1991). English phonetics and phonology: a practical course (2nd ed.).
Romportl, M. (1973). Stručná fonetika ruštiny (3rd ed.). Praha: Státní pedagogické
nakladatelství.
Short, D. (2002a). Czech. In B. Comrie & G. G. Corbett (Eds.), The Slavonic languages
Short, J. R., Boniche, A., Kim, Y., & Li Li, P. (2001). Cultural globalization, global
nakladatelství.
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Skaličková, A. (1974). Srovnávací fonetika angličtiny a češtiny. Praha: Academia
nakladatelství.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548460/Slavic-languages
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/stress
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Summary (English)
This bachelor thesis deals with the question of foreign speakers’ pronunciation
of English, with the focus on commonly made typical pronunciation errors of Czech,
Slovak and Russian learners. Its aim is to find out what the differences between the
English pronunciation mistakes of Czech, Slovak and Russian learners are and what the
and Russian sound systems are presented, focusing on the main differences when
compared to the English phonetic system. Further on, common errors of the speakers of
these nationalities are characterized. It is established that between Czech and Slovak
pronunciation there are minor differences while in Russian speakers certain distinctive
errors occur.
analysed. From the results it can be established that native speakers do not distinguish
between the three different nationalities speaking English. Moreover it has been
discovered that although they hear a foreign accent in the speakers, they perceive the
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Summary (Czech)
Slováci a Rusové. Jejím cílem je charakterizovat rozdíly mezi těmito chybami a také
zjistit, jak tyto národnosti, když mluví anglicky, vnímají rodilí mluvčí.
když příslušníci těchto tří národnosti mluví anglicky, rodilí mluvčí mezi nimi nějakých
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Appendix A
"When Beethoven passed away, he was buried in a churchyard. A couple of days later,
the town drunk was walking through the cemetery and heard some strange noise coming
from the area where Beethoven was buried. Terrified, the drunk ran and got the priest to
come and listen to it. The priest bent close to the grave and heard some faint,
unrecognizable music coming from the grave. Frightened, the priest ran and got the
town magistrate. When the magistrate arrived, he bent his ear to the grave, listened for a
moment, and said, "Ah, yes, that’s Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, being played
backwards." He listened a while longer, and said, "There’s the Eighth Symphony, and
it’s backwards, too. Most puzzling." So the magistrate kept listening; "There’s the
Seventh… the Sixth… the Fifth…" Suddenly the realization of what was happening
dawned on the magistrate; he stood up and announced to the crowd that had gathered in
the cemetery, "My fellow citizens, there’s nothing to worry about. It’s just Beethoven
decomposing."
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Appendix B
This CD contains six recordings, used in the survay. The excerpts are in mp3 format.
1. Speaker 1 (Czech)
2. Speaker 2 (Russian)
3. Speaker 3 (Czech)
4. Speaker 4 (Slovak)
5. Speaker 5 (Slovak)
6. Speaker 6 (Russian)
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Appendix C
The questionnaire designed to learn native speakers’ perception of the six respective
speakers
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