Piton de la Fournaise

Aline Peltier and Andrea Di Muro (Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris;Observatoire
Volcanologique du Piton de la Fournaise, Institut de physique du globe de Paris)

Last Updated: January 31 2021

Short Description
Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active basaltic shield volcano in the world with 71 eruptions
between 1979 (year of foundation of the Piton de la Fournaise Volcano Observatory) and July 2018. Most of
its recent activity is effusive, with hours- to months- long eruptions producing lava fountains, strombolian
activity and lava flows. Summit pit-crater and caldera collapses (last collapse: April 2007) are relatively
frequent events during its historic activity. Explosive eruptions producing ash and block emissions are rare
events in modern activity, but they were frequently reported before 1860 CE, together with long-lasting
summit lava lakes.

The Eruption Search section of the website includes eruptions since the implementation of the
volcanological observatory in 1979.

Central Volcano

Parameter Parameter info

Lat, lon:
Elevation (m a.s.l.):
Type:
Summit ice cover:
Dominant type of activity:
Magma type:
Known precursors:
Expected precursors:
Eruption characteristics:
Type of products:
Volcanic Explosivity
Index:
Column height:
Duration of eruptions:
Bulk volume tephra
(km³):
Fallout beyond 1000
km:
Tephra <63µm at 30
km:
21°14'S; 55°42'E
2632
Shield volcano
No
Basaltic effusive, more rarely
explosive/phreatomagmatic
Basalt dominant
null
null
Basaltic scoria and pumice, Pele's hairs, lava flows,
gas emissions
Max: VEI 4 (Bellecombe events from 4175 to 2855
BP); most frequent: VEI 0-1; min: VEI 0
null
A few hours to a few years
Max: 0,1; Med: 0,0009; Min: 0
N/A
One large ash fall event reported in the last 160
years (1860 CE); fallout of Pele's hairs at regional
scale frequent (decadal scale)
Parameter Parameter info
Bulk volume lava Max: "H0,2; min "H0,0005 during historic period
(km³):
Longest lava flow 20-25 km (outside of the main Enclos Fouqué
(km): caldera) - 10 km (inside the main Enclos Fouqué
caldera)
Gas emissions, null
sulphur:
Interval between eruptions (Last 30 years) Max: 6 years; Med: 0,4 years; Min:
(years): <0,003 years
Last significant eruption: March-April 2007 - VEI 2, low elevation fissure
(590-700 m a.s.l.), about 240 millions m³ of lava
flows
Seismic characteristics: null
Deformation characteristics: null
Monitoring level: null
Current activity: null
Distance to international Saint Pierre 30 km, Saint Denis 45 km,
airports: Sir-Seewoosagur-Ramgoolam (Mauritius) 220 km
Principal hazards: Lava flows, lava-sea water interaction,
gas-emissions, tephra fallout

Fissure swarm

Parameter Parameter info

Exists: Non
Length: null
Trend: null
Ice cover: null
Type of activity: null
Magma type: null
Eruption characteristics: null
Type of products: null
Volcanic Explosivity Index: null
Bulk volume tephra (km³): null
Fallout beyond 1000 km: null
Tephra <63µm at 30 km null
Bulk volume lava (km³): null
Longest lava flow (km): null
Gas emissions, sulphur: null
Interval between eruptions (years): null
Last significant eruption: null
Parameter Parameter info
Seismic characteristics: null
Deformation characteristics: null
Current activity: null
Principal hazards: null

Detailed Description
1. Geological setting and tectonic context

Piton de la Fournaise is a basaltic shield volcano located on La Réunion Island, Indian Ocean. La Réunion is
a large intraplate volcanic island 220-240 km in diameter and 7 km in height, lying on a 4 km deep ocean
floor. Piton des Neiges and Piton de la Fournaise are the two emerged volcanoes of the 50×70 km elliptical
emerged island. La Réunion represents the youngest and southernmost end of the 5000 km long hot-spot
track, whose activity began 65 Myrs ago with the emplacement of the Deccan flood basalts (India). La
Réunion edifice is centrally located between the transform faults, which bound the oceanic compartment on
which it lies. The Moho discontinuity is located between 10-13 km b.s.l. and geophysical data suggest the
occurrence of a laterally extensive, <3 km thick layer of dense ultramafic rocks between the lithospheric
mantle and the 5 km- thick oceanic crust.
2. Morphology and topography

The evolution of Piton de la Fournaise was marked by episodes of construction during effusive phases and
destruction, with notably the formation of successive concentric calderas. The volume of the Piton de la
Fournaise edifice represents less than 3% of the whole volume of the island, which is estimated at ~50,100
km³.

Three main concentric calderas formed at about 250,000, 65,000, and 4700 years ago with a progressive
eastwards migration of the eruptive center and seawards slumping of the eastern volcano flank.

The volcano morphology is thus currently dominated by deep canyons cutting the western volcano flanks
and by the ~13×9 km horseshoe shaped and seawards open youngest caldera, the Enclos Fouqué, which
hosts an ~400 m high terminal cone. The summit of the terminal cone is cut by the Bory crater to the west
and the Dolomieu caldera to the east. The rim of the Bory crater culminates at 2632 m of elevation (apex of
the volcano). The 1×0.7 km large and 340 m deep Dolomieu caldera collapsed in April 2007 during the most
voluminous historical eruption the volcano experienced during the last centuries.

Hundreds of scoria and spatter cones, lava flows, eruptive fissures and some pit craters are scattered along
the three main radial rift zones (NE, SE, N120) which converge towards the volcano summit and extend
outside of the Enclos Fouqué caldera, cutting the populated volcano flanks. Thin ash and lapilli tephra,
associated with the caldera foundering events and with the eccentric eruptive activity blanket the caldera
borders and the volcano flanks.

3. Plumbing system and subsurface structure

Geophysical and geochemical studies converge on the identification of several magma storage levels,
variably connected and distributed over at least 30 km below the volcano edifice. The deepest levels of
possible magma ponding and differentiation have been identified in the mantle lithosphere at 30 km b.s.l.
and near the mantle-crust interface. Based on seismic tomography and deep earthquake locations, these
deepest levels of storage would be offset to the west of the summit cone, at about 15 km beneath "La Plaine
des Sables" sector, 5 km north-west of the summit cone, and at about 30 km depth beneath "La Plaine des
Palmistes" village, 15 km north-west of the summit cone. Inside the volcano edifice, several zones of
possible magma/fluid accumulation have been proposed in the literature: shallow magma pockets slowly
cooling at 0.5-1.8 km beneath the summit craters, as suggested by seismic and deformation features of the
volcano, magma heterogeneities and fluid inclusion pressures; a main shallow reservoir at about 1.5-2.5 km
depth, whose shape could correspond either to a single volume or to a set of sills and dikes, evidenced by
seismic tomography and deformation data from the 1998-2008 period and capped by a seismic zone; deeper
storages at about 3.5 km depth and at about 7.5 km depth refilled during the main magma input events.

4. Eruption history and pattern

The construction of the Piton de la Fournaise edifice started about 527,000 years ago on the southeastern
flank of the larger and older Piton des Neiges massif (5 million years old and inactive since 12,000 years).
As a basaltic shield volcano, most of its activity consist of lava effusions from the summit area, along rift
zones cutting the volcano flanks and more rarely, below sea level.

The formation of the last large caldera, the Enclos Fouqué, was associated with large explosive events
emplacing the "Cendres de Bellecombe" tephra, whose age ranges from 4175 to 2855 BP. Since its
formation, the Enclos Fouqué caldera focused most of the recent eruptive activity. Thus, since 4700 years,
several main types of eruptions can be defined:

1. Eruptions inside the uninhabited Enclos Fouqué caldera (97% of the modern activity):

20% of the activity inside the Enclos Fouqué caldera occurred inside the summit craters (summit eruptions),
and 80% on the flanks of the terminal cone or on the caldera floor (lateral eruptions) mainly along the three
main rifts zones (NE, SE, N120). Eruptive activity consists of the opening of en-echelon fissures, feeding
lava fountains, strombolian explosions, lava flows, gas and rare ash emissions, with activity eventually
focusing on the fissure located at the lowest elevation and forming a pyroclastic cone. Lava flows emplaced
during large eruptions or emitted from distal locations can attain the ocean (lava flows of 24 eruptions
located inside the Enclos Fouqué caldera have attained the eastern coast of the island since the 19th century)
and produce violent explosive events (water-lava interaction).

Duration of activity: Days to months.

Frequency: 1.8 eruptions per year between 1980 and mid-2018.

Historic (1700-1860) and pre-historic lava lakes and long lasting effusive eruptions, emplacing large fields
of pahoehoe lavas have been described by explorers and their remnants crop out in the steep cliffs of the
Dolomieu crater and drape the terminal cone flanks and part of the Enclos Fouqué floor.

2. Eruptions outside the Enclos Fouqué caldera, called "Hors-Enclos" eruption:

These eruptions often begin with the opening of eruptive fissures inside the Enclos Fouqué caldera, before
further propagation on the outer volcano flanks outside the caldera. Then the eruptive style is similar to
eruptions inside the Enclos Fouqué. The most recent of these events (e.g. 1977; 1986; 1998) have emitted
degassed magmas feeding a dominantly effusive activity. The lavas of most of these eruptions attain the
coast.

Duration of activity: Days to weeks for the events identified during the last three centuries.

Frequency: Six eruptions in 300 years (among which three during the last 50 years).

3. Explosive eruptions:

Explosive eruptions producing ash and lapilli columns, vapor explosions and block ejections are rare events
since 1860 CE, but are frequently reported in the 1700-1860 period. The largest modern events have
occurred in 1961 and 2007, while weaker ash emissions have been reported in 1986, 2002 and 2016. Thin
pyroclastic layer and fields of meter to decimeter large lithic blocks are visible close to the rim of the
summit Dolomieu crater, signs of past explosive activity. The most violent explosive eruptions seem to be
related to summit collapses (caldera; pit craters). The largest explosive eruptions are related to the formation
of the old large calderas (e.g. Enclos Fouqué).
Duration of activity: Days to weeks for the historic ones.

Frequency: decadal to centennial recurrence rate for the minor to moderate explosive eruptions, millenial for
the major ones.

4. Summit collapses:

Historic summit collapses (pit craters and caldera), occurred during voluminous lateral eruptions. The most
recent summit collapses (2007) has been associated with several explosive pulses, emplacing thin beds of
fine ash on the slopes of the central cone, but with very limited regional dispersion.

Duration of activity: Days to weeks for the modern ones.

Frequency: Summit caldera collapse: pluri-decadal recurrence rate (last caldera collapse events: 1930-1936;
2007). Last pit-crater events: 1986, 2002.

5. Characteristics during non-eruptive periods

Periods of long rest are rare at Piton de la Fournaise since its monitoring by Observatoire Volcanologique du
Piton de la Fournaise began in 1979.

Only two periods of long rest have been reported (1992-1998, 2011-mid 2014). From mid-February 2011 to
early- June 2014, seismic activity was low with 1813 shallow volcano-tectonic events reported (i.e. 1-2
earthquakes per day) and only a slight summit deflation (1-2 cm per year) has been recorded (consequence
of the April 2007 collapse).

Piton de la Fournaise has no permanent active fumaroles.

6. Precursory signals

Observed signals:

Not systematic: vapor emissions and rockfalls, minutes to hours before the opening of the eruptive fissure in
surface.

Instrumental signals:

Since December 1979, the Piton de la Fournaise volcano has been monitored by Observatoire
Volcanologique du Piton de la Fournaise (OVPF), which depends from the Institut de Physique du Globe de
Paris (IPGP) and is now one of the most efficiently and closely monitored volcanoes in the world, thanks to
over 100 sensors (seismometers, GNSS receivers, tiltmeters, extensometers, gas stations, optic and infra-red
cameras) deployed over the whole Réunion island. From 1980 to mid-2018, 71 eruptions were anticipated
and monitored by the OVPF. All these networks made it possible to identify three main precursors:
volcano-tectonic seismicity, volcano deformation, degassing. These precursors occur on two time-scales
linked to two distinct in-depth processes: (1) in the long term (weeks/months): slow edifice inflation (less
than 3 mm per day), ten to one hundred VT earthquakes per day, and CO2 soil degassing, linked to the
refilling of the shallow magma system and its pressurization; and (2) in the short term (tens of
minutes/hours): strong rapid ground deformation and a swarm of shallow (above sea level) volcano-tectonic
events ("seismic crisis") and SO2 emissions linked to the final dike injection towards the surface.
7. Erupted material & Grain size distribution

Basaltic tephra, on average < 8% of the total erupted volume 0,00004 to ~0.02 km³ per eruption in modern
times. Single locality measurements at 0.1 km distance: Largest preserved grains 10 mm, fines <0.06 mm
0-1 wt%.
Basaltic lava flows , volume erupted: 0.0005 to 0.2 km³ in a single eruption. Modern activity: a'a lava
flows, with less common pahoehoe lava flows.

8. Volcanic hazards

In proximal areas (inside the uninhabited Enclos Fouqué caldera, <10 km distance from volcano center):

Lava flows, ballistic ejection, gas emissions, Pele's hairs, landslides, caldera and pit crater collapse, fissure
opening, vegetation fires. Rare large explosive eruptions can disperse lapilli and ashes at the local scale
(usually <10 km).

Visitors (hundreds/thousand per day) are potentially exposed to volcanic hazards in the proximal area in
case of fissure opening before the volcano access closure; eruption and related fires can damage monitoring
stations and trigger larger fires inside and outside the Enclos Fouqué area. Lavas attaining the coast will
interrupt the main "National 2" road and can produce explosive activity, acid rain and "laze" (white clouds
of steam, toxic gas and shards of volcanic glass).

In medial areas (outside the Enclos Fouqué caldera, > 4-10 km distance from volcano center):

Lava flows, ballistic ejection, tephra fall, gas emissions, Pele's hairs, landslides, pit crater collapse, fissure
opening, vegetation fires.

In case of eruptions outside the Enclos Fouqué caldera: Damage to vegetation (vegetation covers by tephra
fall or lava flows, fires), damage to cultures, infrastructures (roads, houses, etc), and population. The
volcano outer flanks of Piton de la Fournaise are densely inhabited (~250 000 inhabitants).

In distal areas (> 150 km distance from volcano):

No ash plume with dispersion > 150 km distance from volcano, has been reported since the implementation
of humans on the island.

9. Activity status and monitoring

Piton de la Fournaise is currently active, it is among one the most frequently active volcano in the world.

It is monitored by Observatoire Volcanologique du Piton de la Fournaise (OVPF) since 1979. OVPF has
developed one of the densest volcano monitoring networks in the world with 100 or so permanent
instruments installed in the field all around the island, and which record and transmit their data in
continuous and in real-time to the observatory. On the terminal cone, the mean distance between stations is
about 2 km. As of April 2020, OVPF maintened 41 seismometers (24 broadband 3-component stations, 17
short period sensors), 24 GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers, 10 pairs of tiltmeters, 3
extensometers (3 sensors per site), 8 gas stations (4 stations to record CO2 in the soil, 3 NOVAC stations to
record SO2 in the air, 1 multi-gas), 9 optic and 1 infra-red cameras and 5 weather stations.

10. Possible eruption scenarios

(from http://www.reunion.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport_1erephase_etude_volcan_web_
cle534456.pdf)

The analysis of historical and prehistoric eruption products allows to define 5 types of scenarios with
explosive components:

Scenario Explositivity Frequency

Scenario Explositivity Frequency
1 Strombolian (projections of annual
scories/ballistic bombs)

2a Small lava fountains (<10-50 m annual

high) on short fissure(s)
2b High lava fountains (>100 m high) pluri-secular
on long fissure(s)

3a High lava fountains (>100 m high) - centennial

in short duration (<1 month)
3b High lava fountains (>100 m high) - pluri-secular
in medium duration (several
months)
3c High lava fountains (>100 m high) - pluri-secular
in long duration (years)

4a Weak phreatic pluri-annual

4b Violent phreatic centennial

5a Weak phreato-magmatic pluri-annual

5b Violent phreato-magmatic (pluri)-secular?
5c Very violent phreato-magmatic pluri-secular

11. Largest known eruption

Effusive eruption (recurrence time: about 6-8 months since 1979)

The March-April 2007 eruption is the most voluminous historical eruption at Piton de la Fournaise the
volcano experienced during the last centuries. This eruption was characterized by low-elevation fissure
(590-700 m a.s.l.), and a volume of emitted lava flows of about 240 million m3 (10 to 100 times more than a
typical eruption). During this eruption, the entire Dolomieu summit caldera collapse on a depth of 340 m.

Explosive eruption (recurrence time: decadal to centennial for the minor to moderate explosive eruptions,
millenial for the major ones)

The largest explosive eruptions at Piton de la Fournaise are related to the formation of the old large calderas
(e.g. Enclos Fouqué). The most and well known are the Bellecombe Tephra, which represents at least three
explosive eruptions (between about 5465 and 2971 years BP) producing tuff breccias, tuff, lapilli tuff. Based
on the distribution patterns of Bellecombe tephra the eruption columns did not rise above 8 km a.s.l.

12. Extent of knowledge and bibliography

Historic and recent activity are well documented, as well as the characterization of the volcano and its
setting. The day-to-day descriptions of eruptive activity as well as the lava flow and eruptive fissure map,
are also very well documented especially since the implementation of the volcano observatory in December
1979. Research papers dealing with various aspects of Piton de la Fournaise are at least 350 until 2018
according to the Web of Science.
13. Selected references

Abchir, AM., Semet, MP., Boudon, G., Ildefonse, P., Bachèlery, P., Clocchiatti, R., 1998. Huge
hydrothermal explosive activity on Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island: The Bellecombe Ash Member,
2700 BC. In: The European Laboratory Volcanoes, Proceedings of the 2nd workshop, Santorini, Greece,
Casale R. et al. (eds), European Commission, Brussels, 447-455

Bachèlery, P., 1981, Le Piton de La Fournaise (île de La Réunion). Etude volcanologique structurale. PhD
Thesis, Université de Clermont Ferrand

Bachèlery, P. and Mairine, P., 1990, Evolution volcano-structurale du Piton de La Fournaise depuis 0.53 Ma.
In: Lénat, J.-F. (Ed.), Le volcanisme de La Réunion. Centre de Recherches Volcanologiques,
Clermont-Ferrand, pp. 213-242

Battaglia, J. Ferrazzini, V., Staudacher, T., Aki, K., Cheminée, J.L., 2005. Pre-eruptive migration of
earthquakes at the the Piton de La Fournaise volcano (Réunion Island). Geophys. J. Int. 161, 549-558

Boudoire, G., Di Muro, A., Liuzzo, M., Ferrazzini, V., Peltier, A., Gurrieri, S., et al. (2017). New
perspectives on volcano monitoring in a tropical environment: continuous measurements of soil CO2 flux at
Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France). Geophys. Res. Lett. 44. 8244-8253. doi:
10.1002/2017GL074237

Brenguier, F., Shapiro, N.M., Campillo, M., Ferrazzini, V., Duputel, Z., Coutant, O., Nercessian, A., 2008.
Towards forecasting volcanic eruptions using seismic noise. Nat. Geosci. 1, 126-130

Charvis, P., Laesanpura, A., Gallard, J., Hirn, A., Lépine, J-C., de Voogt, B., Minshull, T. A., Hello, Y.,
Pontoise, B., 1999. Spatial distribution of hotspot material added to the lithosphere under La Réunion, from
wide-angle seismic data. J. Geophys. Res. vol. 104, n°B2: 2875-2893

Coppola, D., Di Muro, A., Peltier, A., Villeneuve, N., Ferrazzini, V., Favalli, M., Bachèlery, P., Gurioli, L.,
Harris, A.J.L., Moune, S., Vlastélic, I., Galle, B., Arellano, S., Aiuppa, A., 2017. Shallow system
rejuvenation and magma discharge trends at Piton de la Fournaise volcano (La Réunion Island). Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett., 463, 13-24.

þÿDeniel, C., Kieffer, G., Lecointre, J., 1992. New 230Th 238U and 14C age determinations from Piton des
Neiges volcano, Réunion: A revised chronology for the Differentiated series. J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res., 51,
253-267

Di Muro, A., Metrich, N., Vergani, D., Rose, M., Armienti, P., Fougeroux, T., et al. (2014). The shallow
plumbing system of Piton de la Fournaise volcano (La Reunion Island, Indian Ocean) revealed by the major
2007 caldera-forming eruption. J. Petrol. 55, 1287-1315. doi: 10.1093/petrology/egu025

Di Muro, A., Staudacher, T., Ferrazzini, V., Métrich, N., Besson, P., Garofalo, C., Villemant, B., 2015.
Shallow magma storage at Piton de la Fournaise volcano after 2007 summit caldera collapse tracked in
Pele's hairs, chap. 9 of Carey, R. J., V. Cayol, M. P. Poland, and D. Weis (eds.), Hawaiian Volcanoes: From
Source to Surface, American Geophysical Union Monograph 208, pp 189-212,
doi:10.1002/9781118872079.ch9

Di Muro, A., Métrich, N., Allard, P., Aiuppa, A., Burton, M., Galle, B., Staudacher, T., 2016. Magma
degassing at Piton de la Fournaise volcano. "Active Volcanoes of the World" series, Springer, Bachelery, P.,
Lenat, J.F, Di Muro, A., Michon L., Editors. Pg. 203-222.

Driad, L., 1997. Structure profonde de l'édifice volcanique de La Réunion (océan Indien) par sismique
réfraction et grand angle, Thèse de doctorat, Université de Paris VII

Fontaine, F. R., Roult, G., Michon, L., Barruol, G., Di Muro, A., 2014. The 2007 eruptions and caldera
collapse of the Piton de la Fournaise volcano (La Réunion Island) from tilt analysis at a single very
broadband seismic station. Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, doi:10.1002/2014GL059691

Gallard, J., Driad L., Charvis, P., Sapin, M., Hirn, A., Diaz, J., de Voogd, B., Sachpazi, M., 1999.
Perturbation to the lithosphere along the hotspot track of La Réunion from an offshore-onshore seismic
transec., J. Geophys. Res. vol. 104, n°B2: 2895-2908

Gillot, P.Y., and Nativel, P., 1989. Eruption history of the Piton de La Fournaise Volcano, Reunion Island,
Indian Ocean, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 36, 53-55

Lénat, J.F., Labazuy, P, 1990. Morphologies et structures sous-marines de la Réunion, in "Le volcanisme de
la Réunion, Monographie", J.F. Lénat Ed., publié par le Centre de Recherches Volcanologiques,
Clermont-Ferrand. France, 43 - 74, 199

Lénat, J.F., Bachèlery, P., Merle, O., 2012, Anatomy of Piton de la Fournaise volcano (La Réunion, Indian
Ocean). Bull Volcanol 74 (9), 1945-1961. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-012-0640-y

Lengliné, O., Duputel, Z., Ferrazzini, V. et al., 2016. Uncovering the hidden signature of a magmatic
recharge at Piton de la Fournaise volcano using small earthquakes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 43, 4255-4262. doi:
10.1002/2016GL068383

Massin, F., Ferrazzini, V., Bachèlery, P., Nercessian, A., Duputel, Z., Staudacher, T., 2011. Structures and
evolution of the plumbing system of Piton de la Fournaise volcano inferred from clustering of 2007 eruptive
cycle seismicity. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 202, 96-106

þÿMichon, L., Di Muro, A., Villeneuve, N., Saint Marc, C., Fadda, P., Manta, F., 2013. Explosive activity of
the summit cone of Piton de la Fournaise volcano (La Réunion island): A historical and geological review. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 263, 117-133

Michon, L., Ferrazzini, V., & Di Muro, A., 2016. Magma intrusions paths of Piton de la Fournaise. In:
Bachèlery, P., Lénat, J.-F., Di Muro, A., Michon, L. (Editor), Active Volcanoes of the Southwest Indian
Ocean: Piton de la Fournaise and Karthala. Active Volcanoes of the World. Springer-Verlag Berlin and
Heidelberg. pp. 91-106

Morandi, A., Principe, C., Di Muro, A., Leroi, G., Michon, L. Bachelery, P., 2016, Pre-historic (< 5 kyrs)
explosive activity at Piton de la Fournaise volcano. "Active Volcanoes of the World" series, Springer,
Bachelery, P., Lenat, J.F, Di Muro, A., Michon L., Editors. Pg. 107-138.

Nercessian, A., Hirn, A., Lépine, J.-C., Sapin, M., 1996. Internal structure of Piton de La Fournaise volcano
from seismic wave propagation and earthquakes distribution. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 70, 123-143

Ort, M., Di Muro, A., Michon, L., Bachelery, P, 2016. Explosive eruptions from the interaction of magmatic
and hydrothermal systems during flank extension: the Bellecombe Tephra of Piton de la Fournaise (La
Réunion Island), Bulletin of Volcanology, 78:5.

Peltier, A., Bachèlery, P., Staudacher, T., 2009. Magma transfer and storage at Piton de La Fournaise (La
Réunion Island) between 1972 and 2007: a review of geophysical and geochemical data. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 184 (1-2):93-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.12.008

Peltier, A., Massin, F., Finizola, A., Bachèlery, P., 2012. Internal structure and building of basaltic shield
volcanoes: the example of the Piton de La Fournaise terminal cone (La Réunion). Bull Volcanol, 74,
1881-1897. DOI 10.1007/s00445-012-0636-7

Peltier, A., Villeneuve, N., Ferrazzini, V., Testud, S., Hassen Ali, T., Boissier, P., Catherine, P., 2018.
Changes in the Long-Term Geophysical Eruptive Precursors at Piton de la Fournaise: Implications for the
Response Management. Front. Earth Sci. 6:104. doi: 10.3389/feart.2018.00104

Prôno, E., Battaglia, J., Monteiller, V., Got, J.L., Ferrazzini, V., 2009. P-wave velocity structure of Piton de
la Fournaise volcano deduced from seismic data recorded between 1996 and 1999. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res. 184 (1-2), 49-62

Roult, G., Peltier, A., Taisne, B., Staudacher, T., Ferrazzini, V., Di Muro, A., The OVPF team, 2012. A new
comprehensive classification of the Piton de la Fournaise activity spanning the 1985-2010 period. Search
and analysis of short-term precursors from a broad-band seismological station. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
241-242, 78-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2012.06.012

Schmid, A., Grasso, J.-R., Clarke, D., Ferrazzini, V., Bachèlery, P., Staudacher, T., 2012. Eruption
forerunners from multiparameter monitoring and application for eruptions time predictability (Piton de la
Fournaise), J. Geophys. Res., 117, B11203, doi:10.1029/2012JB009167

Staudacher, T., and Allègre C.J., 1993. Ages of the second caldera of Piton de la Fournaise volcano
(Réunion) determined by cosmic ray produced 3He and 21Ne. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 119, 395-404

Staudacher, T., V. Ferrazzini, A. Peltier, P. Kowalski, P. Boissier, P. Catherine, F. Lauret, F. Massin, 2009.
The April 2007 eruption and the Dolomieu crater collapse, two major events at Piton de la Fournaise, J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 184(1-2), 126-137.

Staudacher, T., Peltier, A., Ferrazzini, V., Di Muro, A., Boissier, P., Catherine, P., et al., 2016. Fifteen years
of intense eruptive activity (1998-2013) at Piton de La Fournaise volcano (La Réunion): a review, in Active
Volcanoes of the Southwest Indian Ocean: Piton de la Fournaise and Karthala, eds P. Bachèlery, J. F. Lénat,
A. Di Muro, L. Michon (Berlin: Active volcanoes of the world Springer), 139-170.

Villeneuve, N., Bachèlery, P., Kemp, J., 2014. La Réunion Island: A typical example of a basaltic shield
volcano with rapid evolution, in Landscapes and Landforms of France, World Geomorphological
þÿLandscapes, edited by M. Fort and M. F. André, Springer Science + Business Media Dordrecht.
þÿdoi:10.1007/978 94 007 7022 5_25

14. Selected figures

The Piton de la Fournaise volcano. Photography taken from the north. Photographer: OVPF/IPGP.
The September-October 2018 eruption at Piton de la Fournaise volcano. Photographer: OVPF/IPGP. Date.
October 2, 2018.

The Piton de la Fournaise volcano. Photography taken from Pas des Sables. Photographer: OVPF/IPGP.
The January-February 2017 eruption at Piton de la Fournaise. Photographer: Aline Peltier (OVPF/IPGP).
Date: February 1, 2017.
The Piton de la Fournaise volcano. Photography taken from the Enclos Fouqué caldera. Photographer:
OVPF/IPGP.

The Piton de la Fournaise volcano. Photography taken from the National Road 2 on the eastern coast.
Photographer: OVPF/IPGP. Date: August 8, 2018.