• The Philippines is geographically located in the Pacific Ring of

Fire or also known as the circum- Pacific Belt.

• This region is characterized by active volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes. Its length is approximately 40,000 kilometers and
borders the Pacific Ocean.
• Around 75% of the world’s volcanoes, comprised of more than
450 volcanoes, are in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• In the Philippines, there are 23 active volcanoes based on the
records of PHIVOLCS. These volcanoes erupted within the last
600 years.

1. MAYON VOLCANO
Since July 2006, Mayon Volcano has had four eruptive phases
(2008,2009, 2013, 2014), bringing the total number of historical
eruptions to 52.
2. KANLAON VOLCANO
Kanlaon Volcano had renewed volcanic activity towards the end of
2015
3. BULUSAN VOLCANO
After 2011, an eruptive phase occurred in May-July 2015, with more
activity in February 2016.

The Philippines sits on a unique tectonic setting ideal to

volcano formation. The archipelago is surrounded by subducting
plates as manifested by the trenches that are related to volcano
formation.

- signifies a vent, hill, or mountain from which molten or

hot rocks with gaseous materials are or have been
ejected.
- The term also applies to craters, hills or mountains
formed by removal of pre-existing materials of by
accumulation of ejected materials.
- is a process wherein molten rock materials are emitted or
ejected in the form of flowing masses of lava or fragmental
particles called pyroclastic with gas from a crater, vent or
fissure.

- The Philippines, because of its tectonic setting, has

around 300 named and unnamed volcanoes all over the
archipelago.
- At present, PHIVOLCS classifies volcanoes into 3
categories: active, inactive, and potentially active.
A volcano is classified as active based on the following:
• if it has had eruptions in historic times supported by
numerous historical accounts;
• if it has oral folkloric history which suggests an
eruption that is remembered by our ancestors;
• if it has shown indications of seismic activity and
• if it has volcanic deposits less than 10,000 years as
determined by radiometric dating.
- A volcano is said to be inactive if it has no record
of eruptions and its form has been changed by
agents of weathering and erosion with the
formation of deep gullies.
- In 1997, PHIVOLCS introduced a third category-that of
potentially active.
.- A volcano is said to be potentially active if it is
geologically younglooking,
which suggests it possibly erupted in less than 10,000
years.
-A volcano is said to be geomorphologically young as
suggested by very little vegetation cover.
Active: Has, is or showing signs that it will erupt
Dormant: Show signs or predicted to erupt
Extinct: Unlikely to erupt again

There are different types of volcanoes based on the form

or shape of their edifice, which are dependent upon the
type of eruptions a volcano is capable of and ultimately
the chemical composition of the magma it erupts
1. Monogenetic cones (tuff/cones, cinder cones, maars)
2. Volcanic domes/Domes complexes
3. Strato-volcanoes
4. Calderas
5. Shield volcanoes
Magma (lava on the earth’s surface) can be classified into three
basic types, which are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic, based on
silicon dioxide (SiO2)/silica content. The viscosity of magma is
directly affected by silica content. Viscosity is a property of fluid
that describes the resistance or opposition to flow or to change in
shape. A fluid that is less viscous tend to flow more easily
compared to a fluid that is more viscous. A less viscous lava is
more fluid, which flows in far distances.

1. A basaltic magma is composed of the least silicon

dioxide content, which is about 45% to 55%, contributes
to least viscosity.
2. An andesitic magma is composed of an intermediate
silicon dioxide content, which is about 55-65%,
contributes to a moderate viscosity.
3.A rhyolitic magma is composed of the highest silicon
dioxide about 65% to 75%, which contributes to
greatest viscosity.
–low symmetrical accumulations of cinder (scoria) and or
tuff (ash). These volcanoes are usually associated with
low silica or basaltic magma, usually for during just one
eruption, and may be lateral vents associated with
bigger volcanic complexes.
Examples: Paricutin eruption, Mexico; Ligñon Hill; 1965
Taal eruption explosion crater

– mound-shaped or convex volcanoes formed by repeated

slow extrusion of viscous magma. Domes are associated
with low- to high silica magma
Examples: Hibok-hibok Volcano; Unzen Volcano;
Soufriere Hills, Monteserrat

– cone-shaped volcanoes typically having one

or several summit craters and formed by repeated
alternate deposition of lava and pyroclastic.
Stratovolcanoes are usually formed by intermediate silica
or andesitic magma. e.g. Mayon Volcano; Bulusan
Volcano
– large volcanic edifices typically composed of several
volcanic centers around a central 2 km wide crater.
Calderas are formed by highly explosive eruptions in
between long periods of dormancy and are typically
associated with high-silica or rhyolitic magma, e.g. Taal
Caldera; Parker; Krakatau, Indonesia

- Gentle-sloped but large diameter volcanoes.

Typically, island volcanoes, partially submerged.
Formed by frequent, long-period (can last for
years) lava eruptions in rift zones, mantle hotspots.
Low-high Si02 (basaltic) magma.
- Examples: Kilauea, Mauna Loa, Pu’u O’o, Hawaii;
Mt. Etna, Italy.
Additional Info: Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano

Volcanic eruptions are generally classified as wet or dry

eruptions depending on the role of water. More popularly
however, volcanic eruptions are characterized according
to the behavior or styles of activity.
The most common types of eruptions are:
. Phreatic or hydrothermal eruptions
. Phreatomagmatic eruptions
. Strombolian eruptions
. Vulcanian eruptions
. Plinian eruptions
- Steam-driven eruptions caused by contact of
groundwater with hot country rocks (no magma
involved). Usually precursory to magmatic eruptions.
Short ash columns, ashfall.

-Very violent eruption generated by the explosive contact

of erupting magma with water. Voluminous, slightly tall
ash columns, laterally-projected pyroclastic currents (base
surges) & blasts.

-Weak to violent eruption of gas-charged fluid magma

characterized by lava fountaining & flowing. Lava flows.

-Canon-like explosions produced by the detonation of a

solidified magma plug in the vent by gas accumulated
beneath it. Ca. 20km tall eruption column; pyroclastic
flows, ashfall
 - Very explosive, energetic release of voluminous
magmatic gas, fragmented magma w/c propel w/
great force high in the air, forming huge mushroom
clouds
- Tall eruption column >40 km high, penetrating
stratosphere
- Well-defined umbrella cloud
- Extensive ashfall
- Pyroclastic flows
- Large volcanic calderas

Volcanic hazards are phenomena arising from volcanic

activity that pose potential threat to persons or property in
a given area within a given period of time. Below is a list
of volcanic hazards common in Philippine active
volcanoes.
- Pyroclastic Flow -Lava Flow
- Ashfall or Tephra fall -Lahar
- Volcanic gases -Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide
- Tsunami or seiche -Secondary explosions
- Ground fissuring
 - Lava flow, dome growth
- Pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge, lateral blast
- Tephra fall - ash fall, volcanic bomb -
- Volcanic gas

- Lahar, flooding
- Debris avalanche, landslide
- Tsunami, seiche
- Subsidence, fissuring
- Secondary/hydrothermal explosion
- Secondary pyroclastic flow.

- fast turbulent mass of fragmented volcanic material (ash

and rocks) mixed with hot gases that flows downslope
at very high speed (>60 kph)
- The high temperature of a pyroclastic flow can burn
everything along its path. Deposits of pyroclastic flows
can bury areas within river valleys and plains.
- Deadliest of all volcanic hazards.
Impacts: Hibok-hibok Volcano, Camiguin Island,
December 1951: 500
-Stream-like flow of incandescent , molten rock material
erupted from a volcano. Areas buried by lava flows will
not be usable for a long time, because lava solidifies into
massive rock.
-Usually slow-moving for moderate-high SiO2 magma;
fast-moving for low SiO2 magma (e.g Hawaii lavas)

-Shower of fine-to-coarse-grained volcanic material and

other airborne products of a volcanic eruption. Ashfall
distributed or dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind
direction.
-The fine ash particles, when inhaled, can cause
respiratory problems. Thick heavy ash accumulations can
cause roofs to collapse. Ashfall is particularly hazardous
to aircrafts because it can cause jet engine failure.
-May consist of pumice, scoria, dense lithic materials or
crystals or combination of the four. (Tephra Fall)
-Particle size: less than 2mm diameter (ash), 2-64 mm
diameter (lapilli), more than 64mm diameter (blocks and
bombs)
The speed of lava flow depends on the following factors:
• Steepness of the slope of the ground where it
travels.
• The type of lava and its viscosity .
• Whether the lava flows in a restricted channel,
down a lava tube or as a broad sheet.
• Lava production rate at the vent.

Basaltic Lava
- Least viscous, in which, it can flow up to tens of
kilometers from the erupting vent.
- Highest temperature ranging from 1000 to 2000
degrees Celsius
Andesitic Lava
- Moderately viscous, in which, it can only flow a
few kilometers per hour.
- Temperature range of 800 to 1000 degrees Celsius
Rhyolitic Lava
 - Most viscous, and with this property, it forms a
lava dome over the eruption vent as it flows at the
slope of the ground.
- Temperature of 650 to 800 degrees Celsius

• Lava flows destroy all things at its path because of its

extremely hot temperature. It can also melt glaciers,
snows, or ices resulting into a lahar. Lava can also
boil water as it enters a body of water or a lava tube
resulting into an explosive shower of molten spatter
in a widespread area.

Intermediate SiO2 → Blocky Lava

-Rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic materials

and water, usually generated along river channels by
extreme rainfall
-Lahar deposits can buy large areas under volcanic
debris several meters thick.
- (an Indonesian term), sometimes called mudflows or
volcanic debris flows, are flowing mixtures of
volcanic debris and water. Lahars are classfied into:
Primary or hot lahar - associated directly with
 volcanic eruption and Secondary or cold lahar -
caused by heavy rainfall.
- Lahar distribute and redistribute volcanic ash and
debris deposited around the volcano after the
materials has cooled and has become water logged.
Lahar in tropical areas can be produced by:
• sudden draining of a crater lake, caused by either
an explosive eruption or collapse of a crater fall
(e.g. Agua, Kelut, Ruapehu)
• movement of a pyroclastic flow into a river or
lake, displacing and mixing with water
• avalanche of water-sustained rock debris, where
water can be from heavy rain, hydrothermal
activity or other sources
• torrential rainfall on unconsolidated deposits on
slope of a volcano (e.g. Pinatubo)
• collapse of a temporary dam, where recent volcanic
deposits have blocked a steam channel (e.g.
Asama, Pinatubo

-Gases released to the atmosphere in the form of

water vapour , hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen
fluoride.
-Basic components of magma or lava (H2O, CO2,CO,
H2S, F2, SO2, H2SO4, etc.
-Mostly toxic species.
-There are toxic gases emitted by volcanoes that can
be harmful to health.

- A massive collapse of a huge portion of a volcano

usually triggered by an earthquake or volcanic
eruption.

- Waves or wave trains that are generated by the

sudden displacement of water during volcanic
eruptions. These could also be generated during
undersea eruptions or by debris avalanches.
 - Non-eruption explosive events generated when
ground water comes in contact with still hot
pyroclastic-flow deposits the stage of a volcano
and converted to steam.

- Movement/ adjustment along faults, accompanied

by earthquake.

• Debris avalanche - fast downhill movement of soil and

rock, speed: 70km/hr (due to high water content and
steep slopes) caused by slope failure on the cones of
stratovolcanoes
• Hydrothermal explosions - explosions from
instantaneous flashing of steam upon contact with hot
rocks
• Secondary explosions are caused by the contact of
water with hot pyroclastic flow deposits.
• Subsidence is a ground deformation resulting from the
downward adjustment of surface materials to the voids
 caused by volcanic activity. This may result also from
mine workings or geothermal water or oil extraction.

Volcanologists rely on several indirect methodologies in

order to detect and evaluate the precursory signs that may
warn of volcanic activity. The following are some of the
telltale signs of impending volcanic unrest, and the
corresponding volcano monitoring techniques that are
employed to
detect these signs.
1. Seismicity
2. Ground deformation
3. Sulphur dioxide flux and other gas emissions
4. Geophysical anomalies
5. Hydrology
6. Volcanic plumes
 – Volcanic earthquakes are monitored by a network of
seismographs around the volcano, and the characteristics
of frequency, location, magnitude and type of earthquakes
recorded can show ongoing magmatic processes beneath
the volcano especially those that can lead to an eruption.

– Ground deformation is monitored by geodetic surveys

such as EDM surveys or Precise leveling which measure
the lengthening or shortening of established baseline on
the volcanic slopes. Ground tilt is also measured remotely
and in real-time with an instrument called a tiltmeter
permanently installed on the volcanic slopes.

– the output of Sulphur dioxide, a principal magmatic gas,

as well as of other gas species, is measured as an
indication of the volume and state of the magma near or
approaching the surface of a volcano. Sulphur dioxide
emission is indirectly measured using a Correlation
Spectrometer or COSPEC, a fly spectrometer or FlySpec,
or a Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer or
DOAS. Spectrometers measure gas flux as a function of
how much ultraviolet to visible light is absorbed or
blocked in the atmosphere.

– in some volcanoes geophysical parameters such

gravimetric potential, magneto-telluric and self-potential
have been proven to show precursory changes before and
during an eruption, due to changes in the density and
electromagnetic fields of the erupting magma. These
parameters are measured by geophysical instruments such
as gravimeters and magnetometers.

– the water in wells and springs are also monitored for

pH, chemistry and temperature for changes that may be
caused by the influx of new magma. In some volcanoes,
water levels are also constantly measured for significant
non-seasonal fluctuation that may result from ground
deformation.

– The plumes of active volcanoes are regularly monitored

for volume, intensity and color which may change due to
varying amounts of steam, gas or ash. Space-borne
satellite images also measure volcanic plume chemistry
by analysing the spectral properties of the plumes.
• Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with
rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors
• Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam
emission from white to gray due to entrained ash
• Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the
crater
• Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground
fissuring due to magma intrusion
• Localized landslides, rockfalls and landslides from
the summit area not attributable to heavy rains
• Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of
vegetation around the volcano's upper slopes
• Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g.
Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater lake (e.g. Taal) near
the volcano
• Noticeable variation in the chemical content of
springs, crater lakes within the vicinity of the volcano
• Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano
• Development of new thermal areas and/or
reactivation of old ones; appearance of sulfatases
• Bulusan
• Hibok-hibok
• Kanlaon
• Mayon
• Taal
• Pinatubo