Sexual reproduction in humans

Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals. In

human reproduction the two sexes, male and female, each
produce special types of reproductive cells, called gametes.
The male gametes are the sperm (or spermatozoa) and the
female gametes are the ova (singular = ovum) or eggs
The menstrual cycle
The ovaries release an ovum about every 4 weeks. In
preparation for this the lining of the uterus wall thickens, so
that an embryo can embed itself if the released ovum is
fertilised. If no implantation occurs, the uterus lining breaks
down. The cells, along with blood are passed out of the
vagina. This is called a menstrual period. The appearance of
the first menstrual period is one of the signs of puberty in
girls. After menstruation, the uterus lining starts to re-form
and another ovum starts to mature
The released ovum is thought to survive for about 24 hours;
the sperm might be able to fertilise an ovum for about 2 or 3
days. So there is only a short period of about 4 days each
month when fertilisation might occur. If this fertile period can
be estimated accurately, it can be used either to achieve or
to avoid fertilisation (conception)

To produce a new individual, a sperm has to reach an ovum

and join with it (fuse with it). The sperm nucleus then passes
into the ovum and the two nuclei also fuse. This is
fertilisation. To bring the sperm close enough to the ova for
fertilisation to take place, there is an act of mating or
copulation. In mammals this act results in sperm from the
male animal being injected into the female. The sperm swim
inside the female’s reproductive system and fertilise any eggs
that are present.
Fertilisation
The sperm swim through the cervix and into the uterus by
wriggling movements of their tails. They pass through the
uterus and enter the oviduct, If there is an ovum in the
oviduct, one of the sperm may bump into it and stick to its
surface. The acrosome at the head of the sperm secretes
enzymes which digest part of the egg membrane. The sperm
then enters the cytoplasm of the ovum and the male nucleus
of the sperm fuses with the female nucleus. This is the
moment of fertilisation and is shown in more detail in Figure
below.
Although a single ejaculation may contain over three
hundred million sperm, only a few hundred will reach the
oviduct and only one will fertilise the ovum.
Pregnancy and development
The fertilised ovum (zygote) first divides into two cells. Each
of these divides again, so producing four cells. The cells
continue to divide in this way to produce a solid ball of cells
an early stage in the development of the embryo. This early
embryo travels down the oviduct to the uterus. Here it sinks
into the lining of the uterus, a process called implantation .
The embryo continues to grow and produces new cells that
form tissues and organs After 8 weeks, when all the organs
are formed, the embryo is called a fetus. One of the first
organs to form is the heart, which pumps blood around the
body of the embryo.
As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to contain it. Inside
the uterus the embryo becomes enclosed in a fluid-filled sac
called the amnion or water sac, which protects it from
damage and
prevents unequal pressures from acting on it. The fluid is
called amniotic fluid. The oxygen and food needed to keep
the embryo alive and growing are obtained from the
mother’s blood by means of a structure called the placenta.
Placenta
Soon after the ball of cells reaches the uterus, some of the
cells, instead of forming the organs of the embryo, grow into
a disc-like structure, the placenta. The placenta becomes
closely attached to the lining of the uterus and is attached to
the embryo by a tube called the umbilical cord . The nervous
system (brain, spinal cord and sense organs) start to develop
very quickly.After a few weeks, the embryo’s heart has
developed and is circulating blood through the umbilical cord
and placenta as well as through its own tissues.

Functions of the placenta

1. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
The placenta has two separate circulatory systems, as it
receives blood supply from both the mum and the baby. This
means that the mum’s blood and the baby’s blood don't mix.
The umbilical cord is the lifeline that attaches to the placenta
and to the baby but does not directly connect to the mum’s
circulatory system. The deoxygenated blood flows from the
baby to the placenta where it is reoxygenated by the
maternal blood flow and then it is returned through the cord
to the baby.
Exchange of nutrients and oxygen takes place at the placenta
so that the baby can have all the oxygen and nutrients it
needs to grow.
2. Exchange of dissolved nutrients between the mother and
baby
The placenta is important in making sure that the baby can
get the nutrients necessary for healthy growth and
development from the mother’s blood. The transfer of
nutrients occurs in the same way that oxygen and carbon
dioxide are transferred in the placenta.
3.Removing all the waste from the baby
Waste products, such as carbon dioxide, are transported
from the baby through the umbilical cord to the placenta
where they are transferred to the mother’s veins and taken
away
However, Blood entering the placenta from the mother
does not mix with the embryo’s blood.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

A sexually transmitted infection is an infection that is
transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact.
AIDS and HIV
The initials of AIDS stand for acquired immune deficiency
syndrome. (A ‘syndrome’ is a pattern of symptoms associated
with a particular disease.)
 The virus that causes AIDS is the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
After a person has been infected, years may pass before
symptoms develop. So people may carry the virus yet not
show any symptoms.
Describe the methods of transmission of HIV
HIV is transmitted by direct infection of the blood.
1. Sharing sharp instruments with infected people for
example, drug users who share needles contaminated
with infected blood run a high risk of the disease.
Haemophiliacs have also fallen victim to AIDS.
Haemophiliacs have to inject themselves with a blood
product that contains a clotting factor. Before the risks
were recognised, infected carriers sometimes donated
blood, which was used to produce the clotting factor.
2. Having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected
person for example, both between men and women
and, especially, between homosexual men who practise
anal intercourse. Prostitutes, who have many sexual
partners, are at risk of being infected.
3. From infected mother to child during birth. Babies born
to HIV carriers may become infected with HIV, either in
the uterus or during birth or from the mother’s milk
 during feeding. The rate of infection varies If the mother
is given drug therapy during labour and the baby within
3 days, this method of transmission is reduced.
Explain how the spread of sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) is controlled
1. The best way to avoid sexually transmitted infections is
to avoid having sexual intercourse with an infected
person. However, the symptoms of the disease are
often not obvious and it is difficult to recognise an infected
individual. So the disease is avoided by not having sexual
intercourse with a person who might have the disease.
2. Being faithful to one partner.
3. The risk of catching a sexually transmitted disease can
be greatly reduced if the man uses a condom or if a
woman uses a femidom. These act as barriers to
bacteria or viruses.
4. If a person suspects that he or she has caught a sexually
transmitted disease, treatment must be sought at once.