PREAMBLE TO DIAMAGNETISM MAGNETIC MATERIALS: DIAMAGNETISM


Orbiting charge , mass q,


All substances show a magnetisation in opposition to the






radius , angular velocity
applied magnetic field — caused by perturbation of the
electron orbits.



















Current


General idea can be seen from simple model




moment







Area (need QM to cope with electron spin (next year)).














Angular momentum q Suppose electron orbits at







radius , angular velocity





q 






If , balance of forces
Quite general result, but elementary particles have
"
"

!
!

"
"




&










"
'

different gyromagnetic ratios:

#
#

$%

$%
&


e












(


,


*

!
+


+++
+

q If there is an additional force (inwards).


.
.

-
-


 










for case where momentum New balance of forces at radius ,



"


for electron spin!

!
!

"

/
0
/
0

.
.

-
-
-









/
0
'

#
-

$%
&


&




Momentum of electron not collinear with current. e e

 SIMPLE MODEL OF DIAMAGNETISM

3
3
DIAMAGNETISM — NON-EXAMINABLE

2
4
6

5
Expand to first order in

9
=
9
=

3
3

?
H

6
@
4
@
6
8

7
:
<
:
G

;
;
[
[

Y
Y

>

6
]

F
X
Z
Z
^
^

8
E
\
\

6
BC
D
4
4
D
Q. Why is ?

8
8
8

8
e e

_
`

2
A. Because is quantised, and doesn’t change when
Leading terms cancel
is applied.

3
3
H

<
G

6
4
@

;
>
d
[
[

Y
Y

a
f

X
c
^
Z
^
^
Z
Z

b
b

6
4
D
6
\
\

8
8
8
e Q. But isn’t e , so ?

I
I

3
3
X

2
4
4
6
6

8
8
In fact is very small compared to (not A. No, it isn’t that angular momentum that is quantised.
obvious!) The correct momentum to use is the canonical momentum

H
k
k

@
i

g
h

c
j

L
b

J
>

6
6

K
q ( = vector potential).

<
D
L
e
k

6
@
D

K
Q. But what is ?
where L e is the Larmor frequency.
l

k
n

m
`

X
o

Z
q

b
p

2
A. will generate in the -direction, so for
l

This gives an additional dipole moment opposed to

s
s
m

j
r
c
t
r
Z

b
b

e
e
d

electron ( ) e .
applied field (Lenz’ law)
d

7
7
v
w

H
u
u

c
^
r
Z
Z

@
6
@
4
b
b

\
e

7
d

N
N
Q

M
M P
constant constant

O
B
4
L e

K
K
K

8
A

<
<

R
B
D
e
x

Q./ A. Alternative: velocity increases due to induced

2
Average (factor of 2/3) over orientations of orbit:
field (next section).

U
V

7
7
H

@
4
8

S
N
NT

M
O
K
W
D
e
 DIAMAGNETISM — INDUCTION EFFECTS PARAMAGNETISM

z
{

y
›
Suppose magnetic field is increasing at rate
Due to permanent magnetic dipoles in medium.

y
›
œ


There is an electromotive force induced around the path of

Suppose each dipole has moment .
the orbit, given by Faraday’s law (coming soon. . . ).

ž
 

›
Ÿ

~
‹
If dipoles have random orientation.

|
€

Œ

‚
‡

{

ƒ
„…
„…

}
}
}
}




ˆ
ˆ
†

‰
¡

Š
ž
 

›
Ÿ
If field tends to align dipoles.

y
¨

¢
¤

If is increasing, this electric fields acts to accelerate the

›
¥¦§

Ÿ


Dipole energy ,
charge so that

z
{

…


z



}
}
©
­

ˆ
¨
¨
¨

ƒ
ª

Probability of alignment in
©
­
­

¨
¨

{
¯

…

†

“
”
“
”
“
”

’
’
’
’

‘
—


•
…
–
•
…
–
–
…

}
}

†
†
ƒ
e e

’
’
{

–
…

¸
»

¤
¥¦§

œ


‘
±

—
©
­

¨
¨
¨
¨

¬
¬

®
³

§
µ

¯
°
´
¶·

ƒ
²

–
…
•
–
¹ º

†
†
†
e

y
But we have already show that solid angle Boltzmann factor

’
’
{

ƒ
™

–
…

¿

¨
¹

¤
º

½
½

›
¥¦§

¼
¾
œ

˜


—
Set and

–
…
•
–

†
†
†
e
©
­
©
­

¨
¨
ÂÃ

¬
¬
¬

®
®

À
¯
¯
¼
¼
°Á
¼

’
š

y
…
}
.
 PARAMAGNETISM II

CURIE-WEISS THEORY

Ä
Average alignment along is

Ð
Ó
ÕÖ
ö
ø
ú

õ
û

Ç
Ï
ÏÔ
ù

È
÷
÷

Æ
Í
Æ
Í

Ì
Ò
At low field strengths

ÉÊË

Ç
Ç
Ï

Î
Î

È
È
Ñ

Ð
Ó
ÕÖ

ÏÔ

Ñ
ý

Ò


þ
þ

ÿ

ü
ù



û
(Curie’s Law)

þ

×
Ü
Ý

Ä
Ë
Ú
Ø
Denominator =


Ø
ô



×
×


Curie’s Law:

Ü
Ý
Ü
Ý

Û
Û

Ù


Ä
ÉÊË
Ë

Ø
Ú
Ø

Þ
ß
Numerator =

Ø
Ø
is the Curie constant.

á
ã
ô

ä
ç

Ç
â
Approximate theory of paramagnetism. We have so far

Ü
Ý
Ü
Ý

Û
é

à
è

ÉÊ
Ø
Ø

Î
Þ

Ç
Ø

È
ignored the effect of the dipoles on each other.

Ü
Ý

é
Cooperative effects: Microscopic moments tend to align

Ä
Ø
is the Langevin function
with each other.
ö
ø

Å
ê


Ä
High or low — Macroscopic fields satisfy but field


Ü
Ý

é
ë

Ø
saturates 1 local at the atom can can be very different from the


Ü
Ý

Ä
Ø
ì
Ø
macroscopic .
Low field strength
ô

Cooperative effects are very strong for ferromagnetic

media.

Ø
Ø
ó

Ü
Ý
Ü
Ý

é
ñ

Ø
Ø

Î
Þ

í
ï ð
 WEISS THEORY CURIE-WEISS THEORY

0
5

,
1
3 4

+
.

-
/
Weiss (1907) suggested model Weiss theory:



6




/



:

+
local
7 8

Consider weak field limit









0
5

4
1
4

is the Weiss constant

6
.

/
/

<
7
8

6
;

Expresses cooperative effect as increased contribution


?

4
1

from local .

+
>
-
Define , rearrange to get






J

?
7

Use this in Langevin expression for .

8

=
:

local
6
.
;
6
.

/
/
/

>
-
-
J

E
?

@
7
3
7


8

=
=

A
F

B
B


6
.
;


/

D
/

D
H
I
G

A
C









K

+
>
-

%
)





'

&

(


8
8






Curie-Weiss law:
D

!"
*
c




'


(
&







J
?

K
K
7

+
;
6
.

-
/

is the Curie constant:

K

8
8

Changes weak field limit c is the critical, or Curie temperature: c .
8
8

L
M

Predicts spontaneous magnetisation below a critical Curie c paramagnetism, with Curie-Weiss law.
8
8

N
M

temperature. c spontaneous magnetisation.

 WEISS THEORY

p
q
r

o
FERROMAGNETISM — EXAMPLE At constant , plot against .

o
Can make plots as follows:

S
S

O
P
U
U

Q
T
y
{

s
q
r
u
q
r

Iron has where is the Bohr magneton

z

B, B

t
t
t
w

v
x

local

V
u

_`
a

Y
S
\]
^
^

U
R
R
T
Langevin Weiss Macroscopic

S
JT

P
B
e

b
_h
b

f
g
\]

^
^

c
e
[

O
d
T
Density of iron (7800 kg m ) m

O
U
P
d

R
Q
Q
p
p
p
p

|
}

Field if all dipoles aligned T.

c c
(This is approximately correct...)

_
j

i
l

k
\
]

O
U
P
d

R
Q
Q
T
Curie constant K.
o

Weiss theory predicts qualitatively different behaviour for

m
\]
]
]

O
p
p
p
p

|
}

But c =1043 K, so . and

c c.

O
p
p
q
r

o
~

Very strong cooperative quantum interactions of spins, For the ( ) graph is multivalued
c
€

q
r





v
v

much stronger than classical magnetic field due to dipole at .

P
Q
at atom site.


o
‚

Part of curve with is unstable



qualitative explanation of phenomenon of magnetic

hysteresis.
 PERMANENT MAGNETS

‡
MAGNETIC DOMAINS Can make permanent magnets using materials which
have high potential barriers to formation of domain walls.

…
…

ƒ
‡
Curie-Weiss Law Iron highly magnetised for c. Even non-permanent magnetic materials present some
potential barrier

ƒ
But can easily get unmagnetised iron bars.
— hence hysteresis.

ƒ
ˆ

Magnetic structure breaks up into domains which reduce Apply current

Š

the total energy of the magnetic field.

magnetic field
‹

Measure resulting
field in small gap.
or
Œ

Some remains
Š
Ž

when
‹

Large field energy Small field energy

called Remanence r

ƒ
Š

Domains reduce external field energy,

‡

Finite required
‹

but domain boundaries take energy to form.

to flip sign of .
Š

Called Coercivity c.
 HYSTERESIS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS
WEISS THEORY AND MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
™

˜
Magnetic ring length
š

˜
Saturate with current
›

with gap shorted out.

˜
Reduce current to zero
and unshort the gap.

˜
What is the field in the gap?
˜

No current

 ¡

ž
£

œ
¢

Ÿ
›

¤
™
¤


‘
’
’
£

“
œ


¢

Weiss theory versus graph for c provides i g

¦
¦

qualitative explanation of hysteresis.

¢

If gap small g i


Scale of is approximately correct.

‘
”•


Scale of is much too large (by factor of about ) for
›

most ferromagnets.
¤

œ
¢
§
™

(sloping up to left)
¨

i
©


Coercivity is very variable between different materials.
¤
¦


changes by movement of domain walls, rather than by i is small, opposing i.
¦
¦

rotation of dipoles.
g is a little less than r.
 MAGNETISATION PROCESS IN IRON
COERCIVITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Illustration of wide range of coercivity found in magnetic

materials.
«

Some materials have very strong domain walls — scale of

ª
¬

Illustration of movement of domain walls as magnetic field axis is about 1 T.

is increased.
«

Other materials developed for high permeability and low

ª
The dipoles of the atoms are ‘flipped’, rather than being hysteresis.
continuously rotated.