TOPIC 4: PUMPS AND TURBINES

OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the role of pumps and turbines as energy-conversion devices
and use, appropriately, the terms head, power and efficiency.

2. Be aware of the main types of pumps and turbines and the distinction
between impulse and reaction turbines and between radial, axial and
mixed-flow devices.

3. Match pump characteristics and system characteristics to determine the

duty point.

4. Calculate characteristics for pumps in series and parallel and use the
hydraulic scaling laws to calculate pump characteristics at different
speeds.

5. Select the type of pump or turbine on the basis of specific speed.

6. Understand the mechanics of a centrifugal pump and an impulse turbine.

7. Recognise the problem of cavitation and how it can be avoided.

 ENERGY CONVERSION
Pumps: electrical/mechanical energy → fluid energy

Turbines: fluid energy → electrical/mechanical energy

total head

pipeline
PUMP

total head

pipeline

TURBINE
 ENERGY
1 2
Total pressure (energy per unit volume): 𝑝0 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑉
2

𝑝 𝑉2
Energy per unit weight = head, 𝑯 𝐻= +𝑧+
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Power = rate of conversion of energy (fluid) power = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻

powerout
Efficiency, 𝜼 𝜂=
powerin
powerout
Turbines: 𝜂=
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻

Pumps: 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝜂=
powerin
 EXAMPLE

A pump lifts water from a large tank at a rate of 30 L s–1. If

the input power is 10 kW and the pump is operating at an
efficiency of 40%, find:

(a) the head developed across the pump;

(b) the maximum height to which it can raise water if the

delivery pipe is vertical, with diameter 100 mm and
friction factor 𝜆 = 0.015.
A pump lifts water from a large tank at a rate of 30 L s–1. If the input power is 10 kW
and the pump is operating at an efficiency of 40%, find:
(a) the head developed across the pump;

Flow rate: 𝑄 = 30 L s −1 = 0.03 m3 s −1

Input power: 𝐼 = 10 kW = 104 W

Efficiency: 𝜂 = 0.4

powerout 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝜂= =
powerin 𝐼

1000 × 9.81 × 0.03 × 𝐻

0.4 =
104

𝐻 = 13.59 m (Ans: 13.6 m)

A pump lifts water from a large tank at a rate of 30 L s–1. If the input power is 10 kW
and the pump is operating at an efficiency of 40%, find:
(a) the head developed across the pump; 𝐻 = 13.59 m
(b) the maximum height to which it can raise water if the delivery pipe is vertical,
with diameter 100 mm and friction factor 𝜆 = 0.015.

The pump is required … to deliver water to height ℎ𝑠

AND
overcome pipe friction over length 𝐿 (= ℎ𝑠 , here)
𝜆𝐿 𝑉 2
𝐻 = ℎ𝑠 +
𝐷 2𝑔

If 𝐿 = ℎ𝑠 (vertical pipe):
𝜆 𝑉2
𝐻 = ℎ𝑠 1+
𝐷 2𝑔
flow rate 𝑄 0.03 −1
𝑉= = = = 3.820 m s
area π𝐷2 /4 π 0.1 2 /4
0.015 3.8202
13.59 = ℎ𝑠 1+ ×
0.1 2 × 9.81

ℎ𝑠 = 12.23 m (Ans: 12.2 m)

 TYPES OF PUMPS AND TURBINES:
Impulse vs Reaction Turbines
𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻= +𝑧+
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel; water wheel)

– change in velocity → change in head

Reaction turbine (Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, wind turbine)

– change in pressure → change in head
 TYPES OF PUMPS AND TURBINES:
Positive-Displacement vs Dynamic Pumps

Positive-displacement (heart; bicycle pump; peristaltic pump)

– change in volume

Dynamic pump
– no change of volume; continuous transfer of energy
– commonest are rotodynamic pumps
 TYPES OF PUMPS AND TURBINES:
Radial, Axial and Mixed-Flow Devices

Radial Axial Mixed

high head, low head,

low flow high flow
 ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
"eye" (intake)

impeller vane

Centrifugal pump

volute

rotation
flow

Axial-flow pump

Inward-flow reaction turbine  centrifugal pump

(e.g. Francis turbine)

Propeller turbine  axial-flow pump

(e.g. Kaplan turbine; windmill)
 TURBINES
• Pelton wheel
– very-high head; hydropower

• Francis turbine
– intermediate head; hydropower (pumped storage)

• Kaplan turbine
– low head; axial flow

• Wells turbine
– wave energy

• Bulb turbine
– tidal power

• Archimedean screw
– small-scale hydro-power
PELTON WHEEL
FRANCIS TURBINE
KAPLAN TURBINE
ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW
 PUMPED STORAGE

Dinorwig,
Mooserboden / Wasserfallboden reservoirs, Snowdonia,
Kaprun (Austrian Alps) (Wales)

Foyers,
Loch Ness,
(Scotland)
 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
Head: 𝐻 vs 𝑄
Input power: 𝐼 vs 𝑄
Efficiency: 𝜂 vs 𝑄

 
I

I
H H

Q Q
centrifugal pump axial-flow pump
 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS:
Lab Results
1.1 Head vs Discharge (2800 rpm) 1.2 Input Power vs Discharge (2800 rpm)

12.0 350

10.0 300

250
8.0
200
H (m)

I (W)
6.0
150
4.0
100

2.0
50

0.0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Q (L min-1) Q (L min-1)

1.3 Efficiency vs Discharge (2800 rpm)

50
45
40
35
30
 (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 50 100 150
Q (L min-1)
 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
The pump is required to:
• lift fluids through a certain height (static lift, ℎ𝑠 )
• overcome frictional (and other flow-related) losses

𝐻 = ℎ𝑠 + 𝑎𝑄2

delivery reservoir

delivery main
static lift
hs
suction main
Pump
suction head

Sump
 DUTY POINT
The discharge, 𝑄, is such that … the head provided by the pump
exactly matches the system head (static lift + losses)

H
system
characteristic

duty
point
hs pump
characteristic

The corresponding (𝑄, 𝐻) is called the duty point.

Ideally, this should be close to the maximum-efficiency point.

 EXAMPLE
A water pump was tested at a rotation rate of 1500 rpm. The following data was
obtained. (𝑄 is quantity of flow; 𝐻 is head of water; 𝜂 is efficiency).

𝑄 (L s–1) 0 10 20 30 40 50
𝐻 (m) 10.0 10.5 10.0 8.5 6.0 2.5
𝜂 0.0 0.40 0.64 0.72 0.64 0.40

It is proposed to use this pump to draw water from an open sump to an elevation
5.5 m above. The delivery pipe is 20.0 m long and 100 mm diameter and has a
friction factor of 0.005.

If operating at 1500 rpm, find:

(a) the maximum discharge that the pump can provide;

(b) the pump efficiency at this discharge;

(c) the input power required.

It is proposed to use this pump to draw water from an open sump to an elevation
5.5 m above. The delivery pipe is 20.0 m long and 100 mm diameter and has a
friction factor of 0.005.
H
ℎ𝑠 = 5.5 m system
characteristic

𝐿 = 20 m
𝐷 = 0.1 m duty
point
hs pump
𝜆 = 0.005 m characteristic

𝜆𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑄
𝐻sys = ℎ𝑠 + 𝑉=
𝐷 2𝑔 π𝐷 2 /4
8𝜆𝐿
𝐻sys = ℎ𝑠 + 2 5 𝑄 2
π 𝑔𝐷
𝐻sys = 5.5 + 826.3𝑄 2 (𝐻 in m, 𝑄 in m3 s −1 )

𝐻sys = 5.5 + 826.3 𝑄/1000 2 (if 𝑄 in L s −1 )

𝐻sys = 5.5 + 0.0008263𝑄 2 (𝐻 in m, 𝑄 in L s −1 )

𝐻sys = 5.5 + 0.0008263𝑄 2 (𝐻 in m, 𝑄 in L s −1 )

𝑄 (L s–1) 0 10 20 30 40 50
𝐻 (m) 10.0 10.5 10.0 8.5 6.0 2.5
𝜂 0.0 0.40 0.64 0.72 0.64 0.40
𝐻sys (m) 5.5 5.58 5.83 6.24 6.82 7.57

H
system
characteristic

duty
point
hs pump
characteristic

Q
Find:
(a) the maximum discharge that the pump can provide;
(b) the pump efficiency at this discharge;
(c) the input power required.

𝑄 = 37.7 L s −1 (= 0.0377 m3 s −1 ) 𝜂 = 0.673

𝐻 = 6.67 m (from graph OR system curve)

Find:
(a) the maximum discharge that the pump can provide;
(b) the pump efficiency at this discharge;
(c) the input power required.

𝑄 = 37.7 L s−1 = 0.0377 m3 s −1

𝐻 = 6.67 m
𝜂 = 0.673

powerout
efficiency =
powerin

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝜂=
𝐼
1000 × 9.81 × 0.0377 × 6.67
0.673 =
𝐼

𝐼 = 3665 W (3.67 kW)

 PUMPS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES
Q1 H
Q
Parallel two pumps in parallel
Q2

single pump
Same head: 𝐻
Total discharge: 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
double the flow

H
two pumps in series

Q H1 H2
double
Series the head

Same discharge: 𝑄
single pump
Total head: 𝐻1 + 𝐻2

Q
PUMPS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES:
Lab Results

3.1 Head vs Discharge (Series)

20.0

15.0

Measured
H (m)

10.0
Scaled

5.0

0.0
0 50 100 150
Q (L min-1)
 EXAMPLE
A rotodynamic pump, having the characteristics tabulated below, delivers water from a
river at elevation 102 m to a reservoir with a water level of 135 m, through a pipe of length
1 km and diameter 350 mm. The friction factor of the pipe may be taken as 𝜆 = 0.035 and
minor losses from valves and fittings can be described by a loss coefficient 𝐾 = 9.

𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

𝐻 (m) 60 58 52 41 25
𝜂 (%) --- 44 65 64 48

(a) Calculate the discharge and head in the pipeline (at the duty point).

If the discharge is to be increased by the installation of a second identical pump:

(b) determine the unregulated discharge and head produced by connecting the pump:
(i) in parallel;
(ii) in series;

(c) determine the power demand at the duty point in the case of parallel operation;

(d) in the case of parallel operation, if the total flow is throttled by a valve to 0.12 m3 s −1 ,
calculate the head lost across the valve.
A rotodynamic pump, having the characteristics tabulated below, delivers water from a river
at elevation 102 m to a reservoir with a water level of 135 m, through a pipe of length 1 km
and diameter 350 mm. The friction factor of the pipe may be taken as 𝜆 = 0.035 and minor
losses from valves and fittings can be described by a loss coefficient 𝐾 = 9.
ℎ𝑠 = 33 m H
system
characteristic
𝐿 = 1000 m
𝐷 = 0.35 m
duty
𝜆 = 0.035 point
hs pump
𝐾=9 characteristic

System head = static lift + friction losses + minor losses

𝜆𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻sys = ℎ𝑠 + +𝐾 𝑉=
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 π𝐷2 /4

𝜆𝐿 8
𝐻sys = ℎ𝑠 + + 𝐾 2 4 𝑄2
𝐷 π 𝑔𝐷

𝐻sys = 33 + 600.2𝑄2 (𝐻 in m, 𝑄 in m3 s −1 )
(a) Calculate the discharge and head in the pipeline (at the duty point).

H
system
characteristic

duty
point
hs pump
characteristic

Q
2
𝐻sys = 33 + 600.2𝑄 (𝐻 in m, 𝑄 in m3 s −1 )

𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

𝐻 (m) 60 58 52 41 25
𝐻sys (m) 33 34.5 39.0 46.5 57.0 ...
(a) Calculate the discharge and head in the pipeline (at the duty point).

𝑄 = 0.137 m3 s −1

𝐻 = 44.3 m (from graph

OR system curve)
If the discharge is to be increased by the installation of a second identical pump:
(b) determine the unregulated discharge and head produced by connecting the
pump:
(i) in parallel;
(ii) in series;

Single pump:

𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

𝐻 (m) 60 58 52 41 25

Q1
Q
Parallel pumps: 𝑄 → 2𝑄
Q2

𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.1 0.20 0.3 0.40

𝐻 (m) 60 58 52 41 25

Q H1 H2
Series pumps: 𝐻 → 2𝐻

𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

𝐻 (m) 120 116 104 82 50
If the discharge is to be increased by the installation of a second identical pump:
(b) determine the unregulated discharge and head produced by connecting the
pump:
(i) in parallel;
(ii) in series;
Parallel pumps:
Q1
Q

Q2

𝑄 = 0.184 m3 s −1
𝐻 = 53.3 m

Series pumps:
Q H1 H2

𝑄 = 0.193 m3 s −1
𝐻 = 55.4 m
(c) determine the power demand at the duty point in the case of parallel operation;

Q1
Parallel pumps: Q

Q2
𝑄 = 0.184 m3 s −1
𝐻 = 53.3 m Single pump:
𝑄 (m3 s–1) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
𝐻 (m) 60 58 52 41 25
𝜂 (%) --- 44 65 64 48
For each pump: 𝑄 = 0.184/2 = 0.092 m3 s −1
𝐻 = 53.3 m
𝜂 = 63.2% = 0.632

powerout 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝜂= =
powerin 𝐼
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝐼(one pump) = = 76100 W
𝜂
𝐼 total = 76100 × 2 = 152200 W
(152 kW)
(d) in the case of parallel operation, if the total flow is throttled by a valve to
0.12 m3 s −1 , calculate the head lost across the valve.

At 𝑄 = 0.12 m3 s −1 :

Pump head = 57.1 m

Static lift + friction & minor losses
= 41.6 m

Remaining head must be lost at

valve:
57.1 − 41.6 = 15.5 m
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Variables and dimensions:
discharge 𝑄 [L3T–1]
pressure change 𝜌𝑔𝐻 [ML–1T–2]
power 𝑃 [ML2T–3]
rotor diameter 𝐷 [L]
rotation rate 𝑁 [T–1]
fluid density 𝜌 [ML–3]
fluid viscosity 𝜇 [ML–1T–1]
# variables = 7
# dimensions = 3 (M,L,T)
# dimensionless Π groups = 4

Scales: 𝐷, 𝑁, 𝜌

𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑃 𝜌𝐷 2 𝑁
Π1 = Π2 = 2 2 Π3 = Π4 = = Re
𝑁𝐷 3 𝑁 𝐷 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷 5 𝜇
discharge head power viscosity
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑃 𝜌𝐷 2 𝑁
Π1 = Π2 = 2 2 Π3 = Π4 = = Re
𝑁𝐷 3 𝑁 𝐷 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷 5 𝜇
discharge head power viscosity

• For fully-turbulent flow there is no significant dependence on Π4 (Re)

• Any one of Π1 , Π2 , Π3 can be replaced by:

Π1 Π2 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
= =𝜂 efficiency (for pumps)
Π3 𝑃
or the reciprocal of this for turbines
 EXAMPLE

A ¼-scale model centrifugal pump is tested under a head of

7.5 m at a speed of 500 rpm. It was found that 7.5 kW was
needed to drive the model. Assuming similar mechanical
efficiencies, calculate:

(a) the speed and power required by the prototype when

pumping against a head of 44 m;

(b) the ratio of the discharge in the model to that in the

prototype.
(a) the speed and power required by the prototype when pumping against a head of 44 m;
(b) the ratio of the discharge in the model to that in the prototype. 𝑄
Model Prototype Π 1 =
length𝑚 1 𝑁𝐷3
= 𝐻 7.5 m 44 m
length𝑝 4 𝑁 500 rpm ? 𝑔𝐻
Π2 = 2 2
𝑃 7.5 kW ? 𝑁 𝐷
𝑔𝐻 𝑔𝐻 𝑃
= Π 3 =
2
𝑁 𝐷 𝑚2 2
𝑁 𝐷 𝑝2 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5
2 2 2
𝑁𝑝 𝐻𝑝 𝐷𝑚 44 1 𝑁𝑝
= = × = 0.3667 = 0.6056
𝑁𝑚 𝐻𝑚 𝐷𝑝 7.5 4 𝑁𝑚

𝑁𝑝 = 0.6056 × (500 rpm) = 303 rpm

𝑃 𝑃
=
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑝
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑚
3 5
𝑃𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐷𝑝
= = 0.60563 × 45 = 227.4
𝑃𝑚 𝑁𝑚 𝐷𝑚
𝑃𝑝 = 227.4 × (7.5 kW) = 1710 kW
𝑄 𝑄
=
𝑁𝐷3 𝑚
𝑁𝐷3 𝑝
3 3
𝑄𝑚 𝑁𝑚 𝐷𝑚 1 1
= = × = 0.0258
𝑄𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐷𝑝 0.6056 4
 HYDRAULIC SCALING LAWS
(“Affinity Laws”)
𝑄 𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑔𝐻 𝑃 𝑃
= = =
𝑁𝐷3 1
𝑁𝐷3 2
𝑁 2𝐷2 1 𝑁 2𝐷2 2 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 1
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 2

Speed
For the same pump/turbine and working fluid (same 𝐷, 𝜌):
2 3
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝑃2 𝑁2 𝜂1 = 𝜂2
= = =
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1 𝑃1 𝑁1

discharge  speed head  speed2 power  speed3

Size
For different-sized, but geometrically-similar devices at the same speed (same 𝑁, 𝜌):
3 2 5
𝑄2 𝐷2 𝐻2 𝐷2 𝑃2 𝐷2 𝜂1 = 𝜂2
= = =
𝑄1 𝐷1 𝐻1 𝐷1 𝑃1 𝐷1
FINDING THE DUTY POINT AT A NEW PUMP SPEED
2
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2
Hydraulic scaling: = =
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1

H
N2 system characteristic

N1
new duty point

hs

Q
 FINDING THE PUMP SPEED FOR A GIVEN DUTY
POINT

H
N2 system characteristic

Plot a hydraulic-scaling curve back from the

required duty point (𝑄2 , 𝐻2 ) on the system N1
curve at unknown speed 𝑁2 : new duty point (Q2, H2)

2
𝐻 𝑄 (Q1, H1)
=
𝐻2 𝑄2 hs
scaling
curve
This will cut the given curve at point (𝑄1 , 𝐻1 ).
Q

The unknown speed 𝑁2 can be found from the ratio of discharges or ratio of heads:
2
𝑁2 𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2
= or =
𝑁1 𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1
 EXAMPLE
Water from a well is pumped by a centrifugal pump which delivers water to a reservoir
in which the water level is 15.0 m above that in the sump. When the pump speed is
1200 rpm its pipework has the following characteristics:

Pipework characteristics:
Discharge (L s–1): 20 30 40 50 60
Head loss in pipe (m): 1.38 3.11 5.52 8.63 12.40

Pump characteristics:
Discharge (L s–1): 0 10 20 30 40
Head (m): 22.0 21.5 20.4 19.0 17.4

A variable-speed motor drives the pump.

(a) Plot the graphs of the system and pump characteristics and determine the
discharge at a speed of 1200 rpm.

(b) Find the pump speed in rpm if the discharge is increased to 40 L s–1.
ℎ𝑠 = 15 m
Pipework characteristics:
Discharge (L s–1): 20 30 40 50 60
Head loss in pipe (m): 1.38 3.11 5.52 8.63 12.40
𝐻sys (m) 16.38 18.11 20.52 23.63 27.40

Pump characteristics:
Discharge (L s–1): 0 10 20 30 40
Head (m): 22.0 21.5 20.4 19.0 17.4

𝑄 = 32.4 L s−1
 𝑁1 = 1200 rpm

At speed 𝑁2 (unknown):
𝑄2 = 40 L s−1
𝐻2 = 20.52 m (system curve)

What (𝑄1 , 𝐻1 ) did it scale from?

Draw speed-scaling curve through (𝑄2 , 𝐻2 ):

2
𝑄 𝑁 𝐻 𝑁
= , =
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2
2
𝐻 𝑄
=
𝐻2 𝑄2
𝐻2 2
𝐻= 2𝑄
𝑄2
𝐻 = 0.0128𝑄2
At speed 𝑁2 (unknown):
𝑄2 = 40 L s −1
(𝐻2 = 20.52 m)

At speed 𝑁1 = 1200 rpm:

𝑄1 = 37.3 L s −1

𝑁2 𝑄2 40
= = = 1.072
𝑁1 𝑄1 37.3

𝑁2 = 1.072 × 1200 rpm

= 1290 rpm
 SPECIFIC SPEED (PUMPS)
The most important parameters for a pump are discharge and head:
𝑄 𝑔𝐻
Π1 = Π2 =
𝑁𝐷3 𝑁 2 𝐷2

Find a combination independent of D ... (Π1 )2 𝑄2 𝑁 4

=
(Π2 )3 (𝑔𝐻)3

1/4
... and proportional to N: Π12 𝑄1/2 𝑁
=
Π23 (𝑔𝐻)3/4

Since 𝑔 is constant, it follows that, as speed changes,

𝑄1/2 𝑁
𝐻3/4
is the same at any given (e.g. maximum) efficiency.
 SPECIFIC SPEED (PUMPS)
Specific speed is that rotation rate which will generate 1 unit of head for 1 unit of
discharge:
𝑄1/2 𝑁
𝑁𝑠 = 3/4
𝐻
• Single value, calculated at maximum-efficiency point.

• 𝑁𝑠 has the same units as 𝑁.

• Usual units (UK): 𝑁 in rpm, 𝑄 in m3 s–1, 𝐻 in m.

• Less-common alternative: dimensionless specific speed,

𝑄1/2 𝑁
𝐾𝑛 =
(𝑔𝐻)3/4

• Typical ranges: Type 𝑵𝒔 (rpm)

Centrifugal 10 – 70 large head
Mixed flow 70 – 170
Axial > 110 small head
 EXAMPLE

A pump is needed to operate at 3000 rpm (i.e. 50 Hz)

with a head of 6 m and a discharge of 0.2 m3 s–1. By
calculating the specific speed, determine what sort of
pump is required.
A pump is needed to operate at 3000 rpm (i.e. 50 Hz) with a head of 6 m and a
discharge of 0.2 m3 s–1. By calculating the specific speed, determine what sort of
pump is required.

𝑄1/2 𝑁
𝑁𝑠 = 3/4 (𝑁 in rpm, 𝑄 in m3 s–1, 𝐻 in m)
𝐻

0.21/2 × 3000
=
63/4
= 350 rpm

≫ 110: choose an axial-flow pump

Type 𝑵𝒔 (rpm)
Centrifugal 10 – 70 large head
Mixed flow 70 – 170
Axial > 110 small head
 SPECIFIC SPEED (TURBINES)
Most important parameters are head and (output) power:
𝑔𝐻 𝑃
Π2 = Π3 =
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5

(Π3 )2 (𝑃/𝜌)2 𝑁 4
Find a combination independent of D ... =
(Π2 )5 (𝑔𝐻)5
1/4
... and proportional to N: Π32 (𝑃/𝜌)1/2 𝑁
=
Π25 (𝑔𝐻)5/4

Since 𝜌 and 𝑔 are constant, it follows that, as speed changes,

𝑃1/2 𝑁
𝑁𝑆 = 5/4
𝐻
is the same at any given (e.g. maximum) efficiency.
 SPECIFIC SPEED (TURBINES)
Specific speed is that rotation rate which will generate 1 unit of power for 1 unit of
head:
𝑃1/2 𝑁
𝑁𝑆 = 5/4
𝐻
• Single value, calculated at maximum-efficiency point.

• 𝑁𝑠 has the same units as 𝑁.

• Usual units (UK): 𝑁 in rpm, 𝑃 in kW, 𝐻 in m.

• Less-common alternative: dimensionless specific speed,

(𝑃/𝜌)1/2 𝑁
𝐾𝑛 =
(𝑔𝐻)5/4
• Typical ranges: Type 𝑵𝒔 (rpm)
Pelton wheel (impulse) 12 – 60 very large head
Francis turbine (radial) 60 – 500 large head
Kaplan turbine (axial-flow) 280 – 800 small head
MECHANICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
'Eye' (intake)

Impeller vane

Volute
 MECHANICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
u2=r2

w2
2 w1

u1=r1 resultant, v
u = r

 vane
w 

v
u impeller velocity (𝑢 = 𝑟𝜔)
w velocity relative to the impeller vt
v=u+w absolute velocity vr

Radial velocity 𝑣𝑟 determined by flow rate 𝑄

Whirl velocity 𝑣𝑡 is a combination of impeller (𝑟𝜔) and tangential velocity relative to vanes
 MECHANICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

resultant, v
u = r
torque = rate of change of angular momentum

𝑇 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣𝑡2 𝑟2 − 𝑣𝑡1 𝑟1 )
 vane
w
power = torque  angular velocity
v
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣𝑡2 𝑟2 − 𝑣𝑡1 𝑟1 )𝜔
vt
Impeller velocity 𝑢 = 𝑟𝜔 vr

Euler’s turbomachinery equation:

1
𝐻= (𝑣 𝑢 − 𝑣𝑡1 𝑢1 )
𝑔 𝑡2 2
 EFFECT OF BLADE ANGLE
1
𝐻= (𝑣 𝑢 − 𝑣𝑡1 𝑢1 )
𝑔 𝑡2 2
resultant, v
u = r
Usually, small inlet whirl velocity: 𝑣𝑡1 ≈ 0.
1
𝐻= 𝑣 𝑢
𝑔 𝑡2 2 w  vane

𝑣𝑡 = 𝑢 − 𝑤 cos 𝛽
𝑄 v
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑤 sin 𝛽 =
𝐴
vt
𝑢2 vr
𝐻 = (𝑢2 − 𝑣𝑟2 cot 𝛽)
𝑔
H

𝑟2 𝜔 𝑄
𝐻= (𝑟2 𝜔 − cot 𝛽)
𝑔 𝐴 β  90 (forward-facing blades)

𝐻 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑄 β = 90

β  90 (backward-facing blades)

Q
 EXAMPLE

A centrifugal pump is required to provide a head of 40 m. The

impeller has outlet diameter 0.5 m and inlet diameter 0.25 m
and rotates at 1500 rpm. The flow approaches the impeller
radially at 10 m s–1 and the radial velocity falls off as the
reciprocal of the radius. Calculate the required vane angle at
the outlet of the impeller.
A centrifugal pump is required to provide a head of 40 m. The impeller has outlet diameter
0.5 m and inlet diameter 0.25 m and rotates at 1500 rpm. The flow approaches the impeller
radially at 10 m s–1 and the radial velocity falls off as the reciprocal of the radius. Calculate the
required vane angle at the outlet of the impeller.
𝐻 = 40 m 𝑢2
𝐻 = (𝑢2 − 𝑣𝑟2 cot 𝛽)
𝑟 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 m 𝑔
2
𝑟1 = 0.25/2 = 0.125 m 𝑢2 = 𝑟2 𝜔
rev 2π rad
𝜔 = 1500 = 1500 × = 157.1 rad s −1
min 60 s
𝑣𝑟1 = 10 m s−1
1
𝑣𝑟2 = 𝑣𝑟1 × = 5 m s−1
2
𝑢2 = 𝑟2 𝜔 = 39.28 m s−1

39.28
40 = (39.28 − 5 cot 𝛽)
9.81
cot 𝛽 = 5.858

tan 𝛽 = 0.1707

𝛽 = 9.69°
 MECHANICS OF A PELTON WHEEL

bucket
v
jet u

spear valve

bucket
jet

Force (on fluid) = mass flux  change in velocity

Change in velocity easiest to establish in the frame of the bucket

Change in 𝑥 velocity = −𝑘(𝑣 − 𝑢) cos(180° − 𝜃) − (𝑣 − 𝑢)

= −(𝑣 − 𝑢)(1 − 𝑘 cos 𝜃)
k(v-u)

−𝐹 = −𝜌𝑄(𝑣 − 𝑢)(1 − 𝑘 cos 𝜃) v-u 

Power = force (on bucket)  velocity (of bucket) = 𝐹𝑢

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑢(1 − 𝑘 cos 𝜃) (per jet)

 MECHANICS OF A PELTON WHEEL bucket
v
jet u
Power (per jet) 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑢(1 − 𝑘 cos 𝜃)
1 2 1
(𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑢 = ( 𝑣) − ( 𝑣 − 𝑢)2
2 2
1
Theoretical maximum power when runner speed equals half the jet speed: 𝑢 = 𝑣
2

If 𝜃 = 180° and 𝑘 = 1, this corresponds to the absolute velocity k(v-u)

on exit being 0 and all kinetic energy converted.
v-u 

In practice:
• 𝜃 ≈ 165° (to avoid interference with the following bucket)
• it is the jet velocity 𝑣 which is controlled; (turbine synchronised to the electricity grid)
• the optimal speed ratio 𝑢/𝑣 is nearer 0.46.

Other considerations:
• Head at device, 𝐻 = (head at reservoir) − (head losses along pipeline)
• Maximum jet velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
• Orifice coefficient, 𝑐𝑣 ≈ 0.97 − 0.99
 EXAMPLE

In a Pelton wheel, 6 jets of water, each with a diameter of

75 mm and carrying a discharge of 0.15 m3 s–1 impinge on
buckets arranged around a 1.5 m diameter Pelton wheel
rotating at 180 rpm. The water is turned through 165° by each
bucket and leaves with 90% of the original relative velocity.

Neglecting mechanical and electrical losses within the turbine,

calculate the power output.
In a Pelton wheel, 6 jets of water, each with a diameter of 75 mm and carrying a discharge of
0.15 m3 s–1 impinge on buckets arranged around a 1.5 m diameter Pelton wheel rotating at
180 rpm. The water is turned through 165° by each bucket and leaves with 90% of the original
relative velocity. Neglecting mechanical and electrical losses within the turbine, calculate the
power output.
bucket
2π v
Bucket velocity: 𝑢 = 𝑅𝜔 = 1.5/2 × (180 × ) = 14.14 m s−1 jet u
60
Each jet: 𝑄 = 0.15 m3 s −1
𝑑 = 0.075 m
𝑄
𝑣= 2 = 33.95 m s−1
π𝑑 /4
k(v-u)
In the frame of the bucket:
v-u 
𝑣𝑥1 = 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 19.81 m s −1
𝑣𝑥2 = −0.9 × 𝑣 − 𝑢 cos 15° = −17.22 m s−1

Force = rate of change of momentum:

−𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑥1 ) = 1000 × 0.15 × (−17.22 − 19.81)
𝐹 = 5555 N
Power = force × velocity = 𝐹𝑢 = 78550 W (per jet)
For 6 jets: power = 6 × 78550 W = 471300 W (471 kW)
 CAVITATION

• Bubbles of vapour form if pressure is too low; a problem on:

– inlet / suction side of pump
– outlet / draft tube of turbine

• Subsequent bubble collapse causes:

– surface pitting
– vibration
– noise
– loss of performance
CAVITATION
 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
1
𝑝0 − 𝑝cav 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 2 − 𝑝cav
NPSH = = 2
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝐻pump inlet = 𝐻sump − head loss pump inlet

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝atm zinlet
+𝑧+ = − ℎ𝑓 patm
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 inlet
𝜌𝑔

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝atm sump
+ = − 𝑧inlet − ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 inlet
𝜌𝑔

𝑝atm − 𝑃cav NPSH available (NPSHa)…

NPSH𝑎 = − 𝑧inlet − ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 … compare with NPSH required (NPSHr)

To prevent cavitation, keep NPSH as large as possible by:

• keeping 𝑧inlet small (better still: negative – i.e. below level in sump)
• keeping ℎ𝑓 small (use short, large-diameter pipes)

Keeping the pump below the level in the sump is also useful for pump-priming.