Esci Merge

Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 3
Lesson Title Earthquake and Volcanoes
Week
11-14
Duration
Date December 13, 2021 – January 21, 2022
This lesson will discuss about the earthquakes causes and effect in planet Earth and
Description volcanic formation and activity . This lesson will also provide activities and exercises
of the that will assess students understanding about the topic.
Lesson
Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Explain the causes and effects of earthquakes and diagram the Earth’s interior
Outcomes structure
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the nature of volcanic formation
and activity including its prediction and hazards mitigation
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Explain why earthquakes generally occur at plate boundaries.
 Describe the causes and effect of earthquakes
 Explain the instruments used to determine the incoming earthquakes
 Describe the three conditions under which magma can form.
 Explain what volcanism is.
 Identify three tectonic settings where volcanoes form.
 Describe how magma can form plutons
Student Learning Strategies
Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.
LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

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The online discussion will happen on December 13 , 2021, from 7:00-
9:00AM.
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)
B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. Why do earthquakes occur?
2. What are the instruments used by geologist to determine the
incoming earthquakes?
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.
Lecture Guide
Lesson 1
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural disasters. A single
earthquake can kill many thousands of people and cause billions of dollars in
damage.
What is Earthquakes?
Defined as movements of the ground that are caused by a sudden

release of energy when rocks along a fault move. Usually occur when
Offline Activities rocks under stress suddenly shift along a fault.
(e-Learning/Self- What is a Fault?
Paced) A fault is a break in a body of rock along which one block slides relative
to another.
Why Earthquakes Happen?
The rocks along both sides of a fault are commonly pressed together
tightly. Although the rocks may be under stress, friction prevents them
from moving past each other. In this immobile state, a fault is said to be
locked. Parts of a fault remain locked until the stress becomes so great
that the rocks suddenly slip past each other. This slippage causes the
trembling and vibrations of an earthquake.
Elastic Rebound
Earthquakes are a result of elastic rebound. Elastic rebound is the sudden

return of elastically deformed rock to its undeformed shape.

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The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the surface directly above the focus.
Anatomy of an Earthquake
Focus (plural, foci) the location within Earth along a fault at which the
first motion of an earthquake occurs

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Epicenter the point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake’s
starting point, or focus.
Although the focus depths of earthquakes vary, about 90% of continental
earthquakes have shallow foci take place within 70 km of Earth’s surface.
By the time the vibrations from an earthquake that has an intermediate
or deep focus reach the surface, much of their energy has dissipated. For
this reason, the earthquakes that cause the most damage usually have
shallow foci.
Seismic Waves
 As rocks along a fault slip into new positions, the rocks release energy in
the form of vibrations called seismic waves. These waves travel outward
in all directions from the focus through the surrounding rock. This wave
action is similar to what happens when you drop a stone into a pool of
still water and circular waves ripple outward from the center.
Earthquakes generally produce two main types of waves.
 Body waves are waves that travel through the body of a medium.

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 Surface waves travel along the surface of a body rather than through
the middle.
Each type of wave travels at a different speed and causes different
movements in Earth’s crust.
Body Waves
Main Categories of Body Wave
a. P wave a primary wave, or compression wave
- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth

direction parallel to the direction in which the wave is traveling
P waves can move through solids,

liquids, and gases. The more rigid the
material is, the faster the P waves
travel through it.
b. S wave a secondary wave, or shear wave
- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a side-to-side

direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling.
S waves can only travel

through solid material.
Surface Waves
 Surface waves form from motion along a shallow fault or from the
conversion of energy when P waves and S waves reach Earth’s
surface. Although surface waves are the slowest-moving waves,
they may cause the greatest damage during an earthquake.

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Types of Surface Waves

a. Love waves cause rock to move side to side and perpendicular to the
direction in which the waves are traveling.
b. Rayleigh waves cause the ground to move with an elliptical, rolling motion.
Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior

Seismic waves are useful to scientists who are exploring Earth’s interior.
The composition of the material through which P waves and S waves travel
affects the speed and direction of the waves.
For example,
P waves travel fastest through materials that are very rigid and are not
easily compressed. By studying the speed and direction of seismic waves,
scientists can learn more about the makeup and structure of Earth’s interior.
Earth’s Internal Layers

Main Layers of Earth Mechanical Layers of Earth
a. crust a. Lithosphere
b. mantle b. Asthenosphere
c. core c. Mesosphere
d. Outer Core
e. Inner Core

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Trivia:
In 1909, Andrija Mohoroviˇci´c (moh hoh

ROH vuh chich), a Croatian scientist,
discovered that the speed of seismic waves
increases abruptly at about a 30-km depth
beneath the surface of continents. The
location at which the speed of the waves
increases marks the boundary between the
crust and the mantle. The depth of this
boundary varies from about 10 km below
the oceans to about 30 km below
continents. This increase in speed takes
place because the mantle is denser than
the crust. By studying the speed of seismic
waves, scientists have been able to locate
boundaries between other internal layers
of Earth 9 to locate boundaries between
other internal layers of Earth.
Shadow Zones
 Recordings of seismic waves around the world reveal shadow
zones. Shadow zones are locations on Earth’s surface where no
body waves from a particular earthquake can be detected.
 Shadow zones exist because the materials that make up Earth’s
interior are not uniform in rigidity. When seismic waves travel
through materials of differing rigidities, the speed of the waves
changes. The waves also bend and change direction as they pass
through different materials.

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
A large S-wave shadow zone covers the side of Earth that is
opposite an earthquake. S waves do not reach the S-wave
shadow zone because they cannot pass through the liquid outer
core.
 Although P waves can travel through all of the layers, the speed
Earthquakesand direction
and Plate of the waves change as the waves pass through each
Tectonics
of Earth’s layers. The waves bend in such a way that P-wave
Earthquakesshadow
are thezones
resultform
of stresses in Earth’s lithosphere. Most earthquakes
occur in three main tectonic environments.
a. Convergent Oceanic Environments
 At convergent plate boundaries, plates move toward each other and

collide. The plate that is denser subducts, or sinks into the asthenosphere
below the other plate. As the plates move, the overriding plate scrapes

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across the top of the subducting plate, and earthquakes occur.
Convergent oceanic boundaries can occur between two oceanic plates or
between one oceanic plate and one continental plate.
b. Divergent Oceanic Environments
 At the divergent plate boundaries that make up the mid-ocean ridges,

plates are moving away from each other. Earthquakes occur along mid-
ocean ridges because oceanic lithosphere is pulling away from both sides
of each ridge. This spreading motion causes earthquakes along the ocean
ridges.
c. Continental Oceanic Environments
 Earthquakes also occur at locations where two continental plates

converge, diverge, or move horizontally in opposite directions. As the
continental plates interact, the rock surrounding the boundary
experiences stress. The stress may cause mountains to form and also
causes frequent earthquakes.
Fault Zones
 At some plate boundaries, there are regions of numerous, closely spaced

faults called fault zones and form at plate boundaries because of the
intense stress that results when the plates separate, collide, subduct, or
slide past each other.

 Fault zones which extends almost the entire length of the country of
Turkey. Where the edge of the Arabian plate pushes against the Eurasian
plate, the small Turkish microplate is squeezed westward. When enough
stress builds up, movement occurs along one or more of the individual
faults in the fault zone and sometimes causes major earthquakes.

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Studying Earthquakes
The study of earthquakes and seismic waves is called seismology. Many

scientists study earthquakes because earthquakes are the best tool available for
investigating Earth’s internal structure and dynamics. These scientists have
developed special sensing equipment to record, locate, and measure
earthquakes.
A. Recording Earthquakes
 Vibrations in the ground can be detected and recorded by using an

instrument called a seismograph.
A modern three-component seismograph consists of three

sensing devices. 1. One device records the vertical motion of
the ground.
2. The other two devices record horizontal motion—
a. one for east-west motion
b. one for north-south motion.
Seismographs record motion by tracing wave-shaped lines on
paper or by translating the motion into electronic signals. The
electronic signals can be recorded on magnetic tape or can be
loaded directly into a computer that analyzes seismic waves.
 Seismogram a tracing of earthquake motion that is recorded by a
seismograph.


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P waves are the fastest-moving

seismic waves, they are the first
waves to be recorded by a
seismograph. S waves travel much
slower than P waves. Therefore, S
waves are the second waves to be
recorded by a seismograph. Surface
waves are the slowest moving
waves and are the last waves to be
recorded by a seismograph.
B. Locating an Earthquake
To determine the distance to an epicenter, scientists analyze the
arrival times of the P waves and the S waves. The longer the lag time
between the arrival of the P waves and the arrival of the S waves is, the
farther away the earthquake occurred.
Scientists use computers to calculate how far an earthquake is from a
given seismograph station. Before computers were widely available,
scientists consulted a lag-time graph. This graph translates the
difference in arrival times of the P waves and S waves into distance
from the epicenter to each station. The start time of the earthquake can
also be determined by using this graph.
To locate the epicenter of an earthquake, scientists use computers
to perform complex triangulations based on information from several
seismograph stations. An earlier technique was simpler but less
precise. On a map, scientists drew circles around at least three
seismograph stations that recorded vibrations from the earthquake.
The radius of each circle represented the distance from that station to
the earthquake’s epicenter. The point at which all of the circles
intersected indicated the location of the epicenter of the earthquake.
C. Earthquake Measurement
Scientists who study earthquakes are interested in the amount of energy

released by an earthquake. Scientists also study the amount of damage done by
the earthquake. These properties are studied by measuring magnitude and
intensity.
Magnitude

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The measure of the strength of an earthquake is called
magnitude.
 Magnitude is determined by measuring the amount of ground
motion caused by an earthquake
 Seismologists express magnitude by using a magnitude scale,
such as the Richter scale or the Moment Magnitude Scale.
Richter Scale
 The Richter scale measures the ground motion from an

earthquake to find the earthquake’s strength. It was widely used
for most of the 20th century.
 It provide similar values for small earthquakes.
Moment Magnitude Scale
 a measurement of earthquake strength based on the amount of energy

released by calculating size of the fault, amount of movement and type of
rock.
 the moment magnitude scale is more accurate for large earthquakes

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 The moment magnitude of an earthquake is expressed by a number.

 The larger the number, the stronger the earthquake.
 The largest earthquake that has been recorded (in Chile) registered a
moment magnitude of 9.5.
 The earthquake in China in 2008 had a moment magnitude of 7.9 and
devastated the country just before it hosted the Olympic Games that
year.
 Earthquakes that have moment magnitudes of less than 2.5 usually
are not felt by people.
Intensity
 measure of the effects of an earthquake is the earthquake’s intensity
 The modified Mercalli Scale, expresses intensity in Roman
numerals from I to XII and provides a description of the effects of
each earthquake intensity. The highest-intensity earthquake is
designated by Roman numeral XII and is described as total
destruction. The intensity of an earthquake depends on the
earthquake’s magnitude, the distance between the epicenter and the
affected area, the local geology, the earthquake’s duration, and
human infrastructure.

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Mercalli Scale
Earthquakes and Society
Movement of the ground during an earthquake seldom directly causes many

deaths or injuries. Instead, most injuries result from the collapse of buildings and
other structures or from falling objects and flying glass. Other dangers include
landslides, fires, explosions caused by broken electric and gas lines, and
floodwaters released from collapsing dams.
Tsunamis
 An earthquake whose epicenter is on the ocean floor may cause a giant

ocean wave called a tsunami which may cause serious destruction if it
crashes into land.
 A tsunami may begin to form when a sudden drop or rise in the ocean
floor occurs because of faulting associated with undersea earthquakes.
The drop or rise of the ocean floor causes a large mass of sea water to also
drop or rise suddenly. This movement sets into motion a series of long,
low waves that increase in height as they near the shore. These waves are
tsunamis.

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Earthquake Safety
People who live near active faults should be ready to follow a few simple
earthquake safety rules. These safety rules may help prevent death, injury, and
property damage.
a. Before an Earthquake
Before an earthquake occurs, be prepared. Keep on hand a supply of

canned food, bottled water, flashlights, batteries, and a portable radio.
Plan what you will do if an earthquake strikes while you are at home, at
school, or in a car. Discuss these plans with your family. Learn how to
turn off the gas, water, and electricity in your home.
b. During an Earthquake
When an earthquake occurs, stay calm. During the few seconds between
tremors, you can move to a safer position. If you are indoors, protect
yourself from falling debris by standing in a doorway or crouching under
a desk or table. Stay away from windows, heavy furniture, and other
objects that might topple over. If you are in school, follow the
instructions given by your teacher or principal. If you are in a car, stop
in a place that is away from tall buildings, tunnels, power lines, or
bridges. Then, remain in the car until the tremors cease.
c. After an Earthquake
After an earthquake, be cautious. Check for fire and other hazards.

Always wear shoes when walking near broken glass, and avoid
downed power lines and objects touched by downed wires.
Earthquake Warnings and Forecasts
Humans have long sought methods by which to predict earthquakes. Accurate

earthquake predictions could help prevent injuries and deaths that result from
earthquakes.
Today, scientists study past earthquakes to predict where future earthquakes

are most likely to occur. Using records of past earthquakes, scientists can make
approximate forecasts of future earthquake risks. However, there is currently no
reliable way of predicting exactly when or where an earthquake will occur. Even
the best forecasts may be off by several years.

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To make forecasts that are more accurate, scientists are trying to detect changes
in Earth’s crust that can signal an earthquake. Faults near many population
centers have been located and mapped. Instruments placed along these faults
measure small changes in rock movement around the faults and can detect an
increase in stress. Currently, however, these methods cannot provide reliable or
accurate predictions of earthquakes.
a. Seismic Gaps
A seismic gap seismic gap is an area along a fault where relatively few
earthquakes have occurred recently but where strong earthquakes
occurred in the past. Some scientists think that seismic gaps are likely
locations of future earthquakes.
b. Foreshocks
Some earthquakes are preceded by little earthquakes called foreshocks.

Foreshocks can precede an earthquake by a few seconds or a few weeks.
c. Changes in Rocks
Scientists use a variety of sensors to detect slight tilting of the ground

and to identify the strain and cracks in rocks caused by the stress that
builds up in fault zones.
When cracks in rocks are filled with water, the magnetic and
electrical properties of the rocks may change. Scientists also monitor
natural gas seepage from rocks that are strained or fractured from
seismic activity. Scientists hope that they will one day be able to use
these signals to predict earthquakes.

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Lesson 2
VOLCANOES
What is a Volcano?
A mountain that extends down to a pool of magma between the crust and
mantle. It’s basically a hole in the Earth from which magma can erupt.
The word volcano is derived from the name “Vulcano”, a volcanic island in
the Aeolian islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the “God of
Fire” in Roman mythology.
Types of Volcanoes
1. Active Volcano- a volcano that has had at least one eruption during the
past 10,000 years . It might be erupting or dormant.
2. Erupting Volcano – an active volcano that is having an eruption.
3. Dormant Volcano – an active volcano that is not erupting , but supposed to
erupt again.
4. Extinct Volcano - has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is
not expected to erupt again in a comparable time scale
of the future.
How are volcanoes formed?

Volcanoes are formed when magma from within the Earth’s upper mantle
works its way to the surface. Magma can rise pieces of Earth’s crust called
tectonic plate slowly move away from each other. It also rises when these
tectonic plates move toward each other. A final way that magma rises is over
hot spots that exactly what they sound like hot areas inside of Earth.

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Volcanic eruptions can cause some of the most dramatic changes to Earth’s
surface. Some eruptions can be more powerful than the explosion of an atomic
bomb. The cause of many of these eruptions is the movement of tectonic plates.
The movement of tectonic plates is driven by Earth’s internal heat.
Formation of Magma
 Despite the high temperature in the mantle, most of this zone remains
solid because of the large amount of pressure from the surrounding
rock. Sometimes, however, solid mantle and crust melt to form magma,
or liquid rock that forms under Earth’s surface.
 Magma can form under Three Conditions.
a. 1st, If the temperature of rock rises above the melting point of the
minerals the rock is composed of, the rock will melt.
b. 2nd , If enough pressure is removed from the rock, the melting point
will decrease and the rock will melt.
c. 3rd , The addition of fluids, such as water, may decrease the melting
point of some minerals in the rock and cause the rock to melt.
Volcanism
 The movement of magma onto Earth’s surface is called volcanism. Magma
rises upward through the crust because the magma is less dense than the
surrounding rock. As bodies of magma rise toward the surface, they can
become larger in two ways.
1. Because they are so hot, they can melt some of the surrounding
rock.
2. As the magma rises, it is forced into cracks in the surrounding
rock.
This process causes large blocks of overlying rock to break off and melt.
Both of these processes add material to the magma body.

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 When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, the magma is then called lava.
As lava flows from an opening, or vent, it might build up as a cone of
material that eventually forms a mountain. The vent in Earth’s surface
through which magma and gases are expelled is called a volcano.
Major Volcanic Zones
1. Subduction Zones
Many volcanoes are located along subduction zones, where one tectonic plate
moves under another. When a plate that consists of oceanic lithosphere meets a
plate that consists of continental lithosphere, the denser oceanic lithosphere
moves beneath the continental lithosphere. A deep trench forms on the ocean
floor along the edge of the continent where the plate is subducted. The plate
that consists of continental lithosphere buckles and folds to form a line of
mountains along the edge of the continent.
As the oceanic plate sinks into the asthenosphere, fluids such as water from the
subducting plate combine with crust and mantle material. These fluids decrease
the melting point of the rock and cause the rock to melt and form magma.
When the magma rises through the lithosphere and erupts on Earth’s surface,
lines of volcanic mountains form along the edge of the tectonic plate. If two plates
that have oceanic lithosphere at their boundaries collide, one plate subducts,
and a deep trench forms. As when oceanic lithosphere collides with continental
lithosphere, magma forms as fluids are introduced into the mantle. Some of the
magma breaks through the overriding plate to Earth’s surface. Over time, a string
of volcanic islands, called an island arc, forms on the overriding plate.

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2. Mid-Ocean Ridges
The largest amount of magma comes to the surface where plates are moving
apart at mid-ocean ridges. Thus, the interconnected mid-ocean ridges that circle
Earth form a major zone of volcanic activity. As plates pull apart, magma flows
upward along the rift zone. The upwelling magma adds material to the mid-
ocean ridge and creates new lithosphere along the rift. This magma erupts to
form underwater volcanoes. Most volcanic eruptions that happen along mid-
ocean ridges are unnoticed by humans because the eruptions take place deep in
the ocean.
Pillow lava is named for its pillow

shape, which is caused by the water
that rapidly cools the outer surface of
the lava. When water rapidly cools hot
lava, a hard, pillow shaped crust forms.
As the crust cools, it contracts and
cracks. Hot lava flows through the
cracks in the crust and then cools
quickly to form another pillow-shaped
structure.
3. Hot Spots
Not all volcanoes develop along plate boundaries. Areas of volcanism within the
interiors of lithospheric plates are called hot spots. Hot Spot a volcanically active
area of Earth’s surface, commonly far from a tectonic plate boundary. Most hot
spots form where columns of solid, hot material from the deep mantle, called
mantle plumes, rise and reach the lithosphere. When a mantle plume reaches
the lithosphere, the plume spreads out. As magma rises to the surface, it breaks
through the overlying crust. Volcanoes can then form in the interior of a tectonic
plate.
Mantle plumes appear to remain nearly stationary. However, the lithospheric
plate above a mantle plume continues to drift slowly. So, the volcano on the
surface is eventually carried away from the mantle plume. The activity of the
volcano stops because it has moved away from the hot spot that supplied it with
magma. A new volcano forms, however, at the point on the plate’s surface that is
now over the mantle plume. Some mantle plumes are long and linear. As magma
generated by these plumes rises through cracks in Earth’s crust, a line of hotspot
volcanoes forms. Unlike volcanoes that form individually as a plate moves over

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a mantle plume, hot-spot volcanoes that form in lines over a long plume do not
have any particular age relationship to each another.
Intrusive Activity
Through the crust toward the surface. As the magma moves upward, it pushes
into, or intrudes, the overlying rock. Because of magma’s high temperature,
magma affects surrounding rock in a variety of ways. Magma ____
1. May melt surrounding rock
2. It may change the rock.
3. May fracture surrounding rock and cause fissures to form
4. May cause the surrounding rock to break apart and fall into the magma.
Rock that falls into the magma may eventually melt, or the rock may be included
as foreign pieces within the new igneous rock, which is rock that forms when the
magma cools. When magma does not reach Earth’s surface, the magma may cool
and solidify inside the crust. This process results in large formations of igneous
rock called plutons.
Plutons can vary greatly in size and shape.
a. Dikes are small plutons that tabular in shape and may be only a few
centimeters wide. b. Batholiths are large plutons that cover an area of at
least 100 km2 when they are exposed on Earth’s surface.
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes can be thought of as windows into Earth’s interior. Lava that erupts
from them provides an opportunity for scientists to study the nature of Earth’s
crust and mantle. By analyzing the composition of volcanic rocks, geologists
have concluded that there are two general types of magma.
a. Mafic (MAF ik) describes magma or rock that is rich in magnesium and
iron and is commonly dark in color. It commonly makes up the oceanic
crust.
b. Felsic (FEL sik) describes magma or rock that is rich in light-colored
silicate materials. It is more common than mafic rock in continental
crust.

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Types of Eruptions
The viscosity, or resistance to flow, of magma affects the force with which
a particular volcano will erupt. The viscosity of magma is determined by the
magma’s composition. Because mafic magmas produce runny lava that has a low
viscosity, they typically cause quiet eruptions. Because felsic magmas produce
sticky lava that has a high viscosity, they typically cause explosive eruptions.
Magma that contains large amounts of trapped, dissolved gases is more likely to
produce explosive eruptions than is magma that contains small amounts of
dissolved gases.
1. Quiet Eruptions
Oceanic volcanoes commonly form from mafic magma. Because of mafic
magma’s low viscosity, gases can easily escape from mafic magma.
Types of Mafic Lava Flows
Lava Flows
 When mafic lava cools rapidly, a crust forms on the surface of the flow. If
the lava continues to flow after the crust forms, the crust wrinkles to
form a volcanic rock called pahoehoe. Pahoehoe forms from hot, fluid
lava. As it cools, it forms a smooth, ropy texture. Pahoehoe actually
means “ropy” in Hawaiian.
 If the crusted-over surface of the lava deforms rapidly or grows too
thick to form wrinkles, the surface breaks into jagged chunks to form aa
(AH AH). Aa forms from lava that has the same composition as

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pahoehoe lava. Aa lava’s texture results from differences in gas content
and in the rate and slope of the lava flow.
 Blocky lava has a higher silica content than aa lava does, which makes
blocky lava more viscous than aa lava. The high viscosity causes the
cooled lava at the surface to break into large chunks, while the hot lava
underneath continues to flow. This process gives the lava flow a blocky
appearance.
2. Explosive Eruptions
Unlike the fluid lavas produced by oceanic volcanoes, the felsic lavas of
continental volcanoes, tend to be cooler and stickier. Felsic lavas also contain
large amounts of trapped gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. When a
volcano erupts, the dissolved gases within the lava escape and send molten and
solid particles shooting into the air. So, felsic lava tends to explode and throw
pyroclastic material into the air. Pyroclastic material consists of fragments of
rock that form during a volcanic eruption.
Types of Pyroclastic Material

Some pyroclastic materials form when magma breaks into fragments during an
eruption because of the rapidly expanding gases in the magma. Other pyroclastic
materials form when fragments of erupting lava cool and solidify as they fly
through the air.
Classification of Pyroclastic Materials (according to the sizes of the particles
)
a. Volcanic Ash that are less than 2 mm in diameter. It settles on the land
surrounding the volcano.
b. Volcanic Dust that is less than 0.25 mm in diameter . Some of the smallest
dust particles may travel around Earth in the upper atmosphere.
c. Lapili it is large pyroclastic particles that are less than 64 mm in diameter
are called which is from a Latin word that means “little stones.” It
generally fall near the vent.
d. Volcanic Bomb , Large clots of lava may be thrown out of an erupting
volcano while they are red-hot as they spin through the air, they cool and
develop a round or spindle shape.

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e. Volcanic Blocks , the largest pyroclastic materials, form from solid rock
that is blasted from the vent. Some volcanic blocks are the size of a small
house.
Types of Volcanic Cones

Volcanic activity produces a variety of characteristic features that form during
both quiet and explosive eruptions. The lava and pyroclastic material that are
ejected during volcanic eruptions build up around the vent and form volcanic
cones. There are three main types of volcanic cones.
The funnel-shaped pit at the top of a volcanic vent is known as a crater. The
crater forms when material is blown out of the volcano by explosions. It usually
becomes wider as weathering and erosion break down the walls of the crater
and allow loose materials to collapse into the vent. Sometimes, a small cone
forms within a crater. This formation occurs when subsequent eruptions cause
material to build up around the vent.

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Calderas
When the magma chamber below a volcano empties, the volcanic cone may
collapse and leave a large, basin-shaped depression called a caldera . A large,
circular depression that forms when the magma chamber below a volcano
partially empties and causes the ground above to sink .
Eruptions that discharge large amounts of magma can also cause a caldera to
form. Krakatau, a volcanic island in Indonesia, is an example of this type of
caldera. When the volcanic cone exploded in 1883, a caldera with a diameter of
6 km formed. Calderas may later fill with water to form lakes. Thousands of years

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ago, the cone of Mount Mazama in Oregon collapsed during a massive eruption
and formed a caldera. The caldera eventually filled with water and is now called
Crater Lake.
Volcanoes Give Signs

These signs many include very small earthquakes beneath the volcano, slight
inflation or swelling of the volcano and increased emission of heat and gas from
vents on the volcano.
1. Deformation Monitoring
Tiltmeters are used to measure the deformation of the volcano and measure
changes in slope as small as one part per million. A slope change of one part per
million is equivalent to raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one
millimeter.

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2. Gas Monitoring
 Commonly gas output from a volcano increases or changes composition
before an eruption. As magma rises to the surface it releases much of its
gas content.

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Performance Tasks
PT1
It’s Better to be Locally and Internationally Aware
PT1 Direction :
1. Get a separate sheet of paper.
2. Examine each of the pictures in Column 2. Do you know any of these events?
Name the calamity each picture shows. Write your answers in the fourth column.
Possible answers are earthquakes, landslides, tsunami, and volcanic eruptions.
3. Think of the bad effects of these natural calamities in a certain country or place.
Imagine the effects on the health, livelihood, and emotions of the people living in
those areas. List down your answer to the last column.
4. We know that the Philippines has suffered from many deadly typhoons, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and other natural disasters. How can we attribute these occurrences to
our location in the Pacific Ring of Fire? ____________________
5. How about the countries Nepal and Japan, what could be the cause of the calamities they have
experienced?

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No. Picture Country Calamity Effects
1 Philippines
2 Philippines
3 Nepal
4 Japan

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PT2
Evacuation Plan
1. Draw a floor plan or rough draft of your house. Label each room.
2. Identify where the windows and doors are located. These can be your exit points
during calamities or emergencies. Label them properly. Color the exit points green.
3. Locate possible hazards or hindrances like tall cabinets, fire or electricity sources, glass objects,
or hanging objects that may drop. Draw their exact positions in your house. Label them properly.
Color them red.
4. From your bedrooms or sleeping areas, identify the most common safe exit point for your entire
family. Then draw a blue arrow from these sleeping areas going to the identified safest exit.
5. Identify the specific locations of your medicine/emergency kit, fire extinguisher, Go bags, and
important documents. Draw them also in your plan. Label them properly. Color them yellow.

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PT3
It’s More Fun Near Philippine Volcanoes
Direction : Philippine Volcanoes Worth Seeing : Write the province , active volcano and interesting
facts about the volcano in the table with picture.

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Understanding Directed Assess
PT2

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Learning Resources
1. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing
2. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.
3. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/
4. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
5. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233
6. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.
How an Earthquake made in Japan

https://youtu.be/8evL6XCw41g
Earthquake
https://youtu.be/MOpMAiGqGR0
How does Richter Scale works

https://youtu.be/NaNw9LHq9dc
What is Mercalli Scale?

https://youtu.be/I83qTltZb2Y

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LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 4
Lesson Title The Mass Movement
Week
15 - 17
Duration
Date January 24 – February 11, 2022
This lesson will discuss the types of mass movement including their causes and effects,
Description improper waste disposal with proper treatment, and effect of different waste to
of the human health and the environment. This lesson will also provide activities and
Lesson exercises that will assess students understanding about the topic.
Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Demonstrate knowledge of the types of mass movement including their causes
Outcomes and effects.
 Describe the improper waste disposal and proper treatment
 Describe the occurrence and formation of earth resources, its conservation and
significant environmental effects caused by their extraction, processing, and use
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  identify the three types of mass movements from a short excerpt.
 determine the different activities of improper waste disposal.
 describe the wastes produced from different sources and their proper
treatment.
 identify hazardous materials and each impact on humans and the environment.
 explain the effect of different waste on human health and the environment.

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Student Learning Strategies
Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.
The online discussion will happen on January 26, 2022 from 9:00-
10:00AM.
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)
B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What are the types of mass movements?
2. What are causes of mass movements?
3. How mass movements affects the people?
4. What are the different waste materials
5. What are the classification and sources of waste?
6. What are the method of treatment of wastes?
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

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Lecture Guide
Lesson 1
MASS MOVEMENTS
Mass Movement is defined as the down slope movement of rock and

regolith near the Earth's surface mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass
movements are an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material
from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like
streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower
elevations. Mass movement processes are occurring continuously on all slopes;
some act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results.
Any perceptible down slope movement of rock or regolith is often referred to
in general terms as a landslide. Landslides, however, can be classified in a much
Offline Activities more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement
(e-Learning/Self- and the velocity at which the movement occurs.
Paced) Knowledge about the relationships between local geology and mass
movement processes can lead to better planning that can reduce vulnerability
to such hazards. Thus, we will look at the various types of mass movement
processes, their underlying causes, factors that affect slope stability, and what
humans can do to reduce vulnerability and risk due to mass movement hazards.
Types of Mass Movement Processes
The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a

mixture of these, is commonly referred to as a landslide. All of these processes
generally grade into one another, so classification of such processes is somewhat
difficult. We will use a classification that divides mass movement processes into two
broad categories
1. Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris
down hill by sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.
2. Sediment Flows - debris flows down hill mixed with water or air

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Sediment Flows
Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that
they begin to flow down slope. A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or regolith
with some water or air. They can be broken into two types depending on the amount
of water present.
1. Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between about 20 and 40%
water. As the water content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade
into streams. Slurry flows are considered water-saturated flows.
2. Granular Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 0 and 20% water.
Note that granular flows are possible with little or no water. Fluid-like
behavior is given these flows by mixing with air. Granular flows are not
saturated with water.
Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further subdivided on the basis of the
velocity at which flowage occurs.
Slurry Flows
 Solifuction – flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year

of regolith containing water. It produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes. These
occur in areas where the soil remains saturated with water for long periods of
time.
 Debris Flow- these occur at higher velocities than solifuction , with velocities
between 1 meter/yr and 100 meters/hr and ofter result from heavy rains
casusing saturation of the soil and regolith with water. They sometimes start
with slumps and then flow down hill forming lobes with an irregular surface
consisting of ridges and furrows.
 Mudflows- these are a highly fluid , high velocity mixture of sediment and
water that has a consistency ranging between soup-like and wet concrete.
They move at velocities greater than 1 km/hr and tend to travel along valley
floors. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is an
abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams. It can
turn into mudflows.

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Solifluction Debris Flow Mudflow
Granular Flows
 Creep – the very slow , usually continuous movement of regolith down slope.
Creep occurs on almost all slopes. Evidence seen in bent trees, offsets in roads
and fences and inclined utility poles.
 Earthflows – are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities
between several cm/yr and 100s of m/day. They usually remain active for long
periods of time. They generally tend to be narrow tongue-like features that
begin at a scrap or small cliff.
 Grain Flows – usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune on
a steep slope. A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving
rapidly down slope.
 Debris Avalanches – these are high velocity of large volume mixtures of rocks
and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They
move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along
relatively gentle slopes. It often triggered by earthquake and volcanic
eruptions.
 Snow Avalanches- It involve snow and much more common. Usually cause
hundreds of deaths worldwide each year.

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Creep Earthflow Grain flow
Debris Avalanches Snow Avalanches
Mass Movements in Cold Climates
Mass movements in cold climates is governed by the fact that water is frozen as
ice during long periods of the year . Ice does have the ability to flow , freezing and
thawing cycles can also contribute to movement.
 Rock Glaciers- a lobe of ice-cemented rock debris that slowly moves downhill.
 Frost Heaving – this is large contributor to creep in cold climates. When water
is saturated soils freeze, they expand, pushing rocks and boulder on the surface
upward perpendicular to the slope. When the soil thaws, the boulder move
down vertically resulting in a net down slope movement.

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Rock Glaciers Frost Heaving
Subaqueous Mass Movements
It can occur on steep slopes in the ocean basins. A slope failure can occur due to
over accumulation of sediment on slope or ina submarine canyon, or could occur as a
result of a shock like an earthquake.
Types of Subaqueous Mass Movements

1. Submarine slumps
2. Submarine debris flows
3. Turbidity currents
Submarine Slumps Submarine Debris Turbidity Currents

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Variables that Influence Mass Movements
Several variables influence the mass movements of Earth’s material.
1. Material’s Weight – resulting from gravity which works to pull the material
down a slope.
2. Material’s Resistance – to sliding or flowing.
3. Trigger- such earthquake that works to shake material loose from a slope.
4. Water –too little water can prevent sediment grains from holding together at
all, thereby increasing the material’s potential for movement.
- too much water can make a slope unstable. Saturation by water

greatly increases the weight of soils and sediments. Water fills the tiny
open spaces between grains, it may act as a lubricant between the
grains to reduce the friction between them thus force of gravity is
more likely to pull the saturated material downhill.
Mass Wasting can be classified in a number of ways such as type of material, type of
motion and speed of movement. The types of material include rock and soil. The coarse
soil materials are called debris, while fine material are labeled as earth.
Types of Motion
1. Fall – includes the free fall movement , bouncing and rolling of materials on a slope.
2. A topple – the forward rotation out of the slope of a soil or rock mass. The rotation
axis is usually at the base of the moving mass , below its center of gravity.
3. A slide –the downslope movement of coherent materials along a well-defined

surface of rupture called sliding surface.
4. Spread – the lateral extension and fracturing of a coherent mass due to the plastic
flow of its underlying material. This could occur as silt layers liquefy during
earthquake.
5. Flow – happens when the materials are saturated and move downslope as a viscous
fluid.
6. Complex or combinations of several types of movement could occur.

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The widely accepted classification of mass wasting is produced by Varnes in 1978 and
modified by Cruden and Varnes in 1996.

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Mass wasting can also be classified in terms of rate of movement. Cruden and
Varnes classified it into 7 classes from extremely slow to extremely rapid. The rate of
movement for each class and the probable destructive significance.
Mass Movement Affect People
Mass movement are natural processes, human activities often contribute to the
factors that cause mass movements. Activities such as constructing heavy buildings,
roads and other structures can make slope materials unstable. In addition, poor
maintenance of eptic systems, which often leak, can trigger slides.
Dangerous Mudflow
 Human lives are in danger when people live on steep terrain or in the path of
unstable slope materials.

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Reducing the Risks
Catastrophic mass movements are most common on slopes greater than 25⁰ that
experience annual rainfall of over 90 cm. the best way to minimize the destruction
caused by mass movements is to avoid building structures on such steep and unstable
slopes.
Preventive Actions
1. A series of trenches can be dug to divert running water around a slope and
control its drainage.
2. To control landslides include covering steep slopes with materials such as

steel nets and constructing protective fences along highways in areas where
rock slides are common.
3. Installation of retaining walls to support the bases of weakened slopes and

prevent them from falling.
4. To reduce the number of disasters is to educate people about the problems of

building on steep slopes.

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Lesson 2
Human Actions and the Earth’s Resources
Environment refers to everything that surrounds a living organism, including

physical factors such as air, water , soil and biological factors such as living organisms.
An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the
abiotic or nonliving components of the environment.
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services refer to the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems

to human survival and quality of life.
1. Support Service
Include the cycling of vital nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

Minerals are important for survival and derived through nitrogen and
phosphorus cycles.
It includes the decomposition of organic matter, cycling of water and
production of primary materials.
2. Provisioning Services
Provide the basic needs for survival- air, water, shelter, food and energy. The
photosynthesis in plants, water cycle , food web, and the presence of different
natural ecosystems such as forest, rivers and seas.
3. Regulating Services
Benefits obtained by regulating the climate, hazards and diseases through

processes such as carbon sequestration- removal of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and storage in plants
4. Cultural Services
Nonmaterial benefits such as spiritual enrichment , cultural heritage,

recreation , tourism and the aesthetic experience that nature provides for
humans.

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Human Activities, Waste and Waste Management
One of the ways human affect the environment is the generation of waste.
If not managed properly , these wastes will pollute and affect the environment.
Solid waste is generally made up of objects or particles that accumulate on the
site where they are produced. Various types of solid waste are produced
through mining, agricultural, industrial and municipal/domestic activities.
Wastes are unwanted or unusable materials and any substance that is

discarded after primary use or is worthless, defective, and of no use. A by-
product by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value. A
waste product may become a byproduct, joint product, or resource through an
invention that raises a waste product's value above zero
1. Municipal Waste
Includes materials that people in the community no longer want

because they are broken , spoiled or no longer useful. This type of
wastes comes from households , commercial, establishment,
institutions and some industrial sources.
2. Agricultural Waste
Waste acquired from farming and poultry. Most agricultural waste is

organic and is used for soil enhancing activities. Too much agricultural
waste in the form of fertilizers is deposited into bodies of water which
can cause eutrophication.
3. Industrial Solid Waste
Comes from industrial sources such as demolition waste, scraps from

manufacturing processes and ash from combustion. If they are classified
as hazardous, their disposal requires special landfills for isolation and
treatment.
4. Mining Waste
a. large amounts of rock and soil are removed to extract the valuable
ores and the waste materials are left outside the mining site.
b. In milling operation, the grinding and sorting of materials produce
solid waste called tailings, which dump and stored in ponds near the
milling site
c. the water dumped out of the mines flows from piles of waste rock or
tailings that contain hazardous materials.

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Solid Wastes
Solid waste is defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge from waste

treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility
and other materials, including solid, liquid, semisolid, contained gaseous
resulting from industrials, commercials, mining, and agricultural operations
from community activities.
Types of Waste
A. Biodegradable waste. These are the wastes that come from our kitchen, and
include food remains, garden waste, etc. These are also known as moist
waste. These can be composted to obtain manure. They decompose
themselves over a period depending on the material.
B. Non-biodegradable waste. These are the wastes which include old

newspapers, broken glass pieces, plastics, etc. These are known as dry
waste. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be reused. Non-
biodegradable wastes do not decompose by themselves and hence are
major pollutants.
Classification of Five Types of Waste
1. Liquid Waste - commonly found both in households as well as in

industries. It includes dirty water, organic liquids, wash water, waste
detergents, and rainwater.
2. Solid Rubbish can include a variety of items found in your household

along with commercial and industrial locations.
Solid rubbish is commonly broken down into the following types:

• Plastic waste – This consists of bags, containers, jars, bottles, and
many other products that can be found in your household. Plastic is not
biodegradable, but many types of plastic can be recycled. Plastic should
not be mixed in with your regular waste. It should be sorted and placed
in your recycling bin.

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• Paper/card waste – This includes packaging materials, newspapers,
cardboards, and other products. Paper can easily be recycled and reused
so make sure to place them in your recycling bin or take them to your
closest recycling area near your place.
• Tins and metals – These can be found in various forms throughout your
home. Most metals can be recycled. Consider taking these items to a
scrap yard or to your closest recycling area to dispose of this waste type
properly.
• Ceramics and glass – These items can easily be recycled. Look for
special glass recycling bins and bottle banks to dispose them correctly.
3. Organic Waste is another common household. All food waste, garden

waste, manure, and rotten meat are classified as organic waste. Over time,
organic waste is turned into manure by microorganisms. Organic waste
in landfills causes the production of methane, so it must never be simply
discarded with general waste.
4. Recyclable Rubbish includes all waste items that can be converted into
products that can be used again. Solid items such as paper, metals,
furniture, and organic waste can all be recycled.
5. Hazardous Waste - includes all types of rubbish that are flammable, toxic,
corrosive, and reactive. These items can harm you as well as the
environment and must be disposed of correctly.
Characteristics of Wastes
1. Corrosive: these are wastes that include acids or bases that are capable of
corroding metal containers, e.g., acid, or alkaline solution, rust remover,
battery acid, and caustic hot tank waste.
2. Ignitability: this is waste that can create fires under certain conditions,
e.g., waste oils and solvents.
3. Reactive: these are unstable in nature, they cause explosions, toxic fumes
when heated, e.g., lithium-sulfur batteries and explosives.

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4. Toxicity: waste that is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed, e.g., the
household products in homes that are improperly disposed of such as old
batteries, pesticides, paint, and car oil.
5. Non-Hazardous waste: is any type of industrial waste which, according to

regulations, cannot be added to a dumpster or sewage line. e.g., refuse,
garbage, sludge, municipal trash.
6. Hazardous waste: The most common examples of hazardous waste found

within the home include paints, batteries, solvents, cleaning agents,
pesticides, heavy metals, and chemical sludges.
7. Radioactive: high and low-level radioactive waste. Low-Level Radioactive

Waste (LLRW) is a regulatory term defined as the broad group or class
that is not included in the following classes of radioactive waste:
a. Spent nuclear fuel.
b. Fuel that has been withdrawn from a nuclear reactor after use.
c. High-level radioactive wastes are the highly radioactive
materials produced as a byproduct of the reactions that occur
inside nuclear reactor
High-level wastes take one of two forms:
i. Spent (used) reactor fuel when it is accepted for disposal.
ii. Waste materials remaining after spent fuel is reprocessed.
8. Mixed waste: Radioactive organic liquids, radioactive heavy metals. Mixed
hazardous waste is waste that falls into two or more different categories of
hazardous materials. Examples include radioactive contaminated
phenol/chloroform, or blood labeled with a radionuclide
Sources of Waste Materials
The source of waste comes from industrial, the typical waste generated
is light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, construction sites, power, and
chemical plants. The commercial is another source of waste like stores, hotels,
restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. The institutional source came from
schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers.

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How are waste materials treated?
Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and

physical methods. Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation,
oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is high
temperature incineration, which can not only detoxify certain organic wastes
but can also destroy them
Solid wastes are generated from residential, commercial, industrial, and

institutional sources. Residential wastes account for more than half (57%) of
the total solid wastes (e.g., kitchen scraps, yard waste, paper and cardboard,
glass bottles, etc.) Wastes from commercial sources, which include commercial
establishments and public/private markets, account for 27%. Wastes from
institutional sources such as government offices, educational and medical
institutions account for about 12% while the remaining four percent (4%) is
waste coming from the industrial or manufacturing sector (NSWMC).
Causes of Increase in Solid Waste
1. Population growth
2. Increase in industrials manufacturing
3. Urbanization
4. Modernization, technological advancement, and an increase in the global
population created rising in demand for food and other essentials. This
has resulted into rising in the amount of waste being generated daily by
each household.
Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types:
1. Industrial Waste. These are the wastes created in factories and industries.
Most industries dump their wastes in rivers and seas which cause a lot of
pollution. Example: plastic, glass, etc.
2.Commercial Waste. Commercial wastes are produced in schools, colleges,

shops, and offices. Example: plastic, paper, etc.
3. Domestic Waste. The different household wastes which are collected

during household activities like cooking, cleaning, etc. are known as
domestic wastes. Example: leaves, vegetable peels, excreta, etc.

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4. Agricultural Waste. Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are
known as agricultural wastes. Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.
Major Treatments and Disposal Method
A. Thermal Treatment refers to the processes that use heat to treat waste
materials.
Thermal Waste Treatment Techniques:
1. Incineration is one of the most common waste treatments. This

approach involves the combustion of waste material in the presence of
oxygen. It is commonly used as a means of recovering energy for
electricity or heating. The advantages of this approach are it is quickly
reduced waste volume, lessens transportation costs, and decreases
harmful greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Gasification and Pyrolysis are two similar methods, both of which

decompose organic waste materials by exposing waste to low amounts
of oxygen and very high temperature. Pyrolysis uses no oxygen while
gasification allows a very low amount of oxygen in the process.
Gasification is more advantageous as it allows the burning process to
recover energy without causing air pollution.
3. Open Burning is a legacy thermal waste treatment that is

environmentally harmful. The incinerators used in such a process
have no pollution control devices. They release substances such as
hexachlorobenzene, dioxins, carbon monoxide, particulate matter,
volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic compounds, and ash.
This method is still practiced by many local authorities
internationally, as it offers an inexpensive solution to solid waste
B. Dumps and Landfills.
1. Sanitary landfills provide the most used waste disposal solution that is
desired to eliminate or reduce the risk of environmental or public health
hazards due to waste disposal. These sites are situated where land
features work as natural buffers between the environment and the

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landfill. For instance, the landfill area can be comprised of clay soil which
is quite resistant to hazardous wastes or is characterized by an absence
of surface water bodies or a low water table, preventing the risk of water
pollution.
2. Controlled dumps are the same as sanitary landfills. These dumps

comply with many of the requirements for being a sanitary landfill but
may lack one or two. Such dumps may have a well-planned capacity but
no cell planning. There may be no or partial gas management, basic
record-keeping, or regular cover.
3. Bioreactor landfills are the result of recent technological research. These

landfills use superior microbiological processes to speed up waste
decomposition. The controlling feature is the continuous addition of a
liquid to sustain optimal moisture for microbial digestion. The liquid is
added by re-circulating the landfill leachate. When the amount of leachate
is not adequate, liquid waste such as sewage sludge is used.
C. Biological Waste Treatment
1. Composting is another most frequently used waste disposal or treatment

method which is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic waste
materials by the action of small invertebrates and microorganisms. The
most common composting techniques include static pile composting,
vermin composting, windrow composting, and in-vessel composting.
2. Anaerobic Digestion also uses biological processes to decompose organic

materials. Anaerobic Digestion, however, uses oxygen and a bacteria-
free environment to decompose the waste material where composting
must have air to enable the growth of microbes.

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Some of the main waste disposal methods include
a. Incineration- The burning of waste materials at high temperatures to

transform them into gases or residue.
b. Recycling- The conversion of waste material into new products. It aims

to reduce strain on the environment by minimizing the waste that is
added to the water, air, and land.
c. Open Dumping- A simple and inexpensive method that involves the

deliberate disposal of garbage in an open space.
d. Ocean Dumping- Occurs when sewage, garbage, construction debris,

hazardous chemicals, etc. are intentionally discarded at sea by ships,
aircraft, and other man-made machines. Incineration of trash at sea is
also included in this definition.
Proper waste disposal and management can be done by applying the

3Rs–Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Reducing means lessening the amount of
trash/garbage produced. Reusing involves the repeated use of items or parts
of items that still have usable aspects. Recycling means the use of waste itself
as a resource.

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Recycling Symbols
Color coding exists to allow you to easily distinguish the different types
of biomedical waste, by sorting them into different categories, each pertaining
to a single color. Your colored bins take different kinds of waste. Green for
biodegradable waste (non-recyclable waste); black for electronic product-
waste; and blue for plastic and metal waste (recyclable waste)
Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, with children
being more vulnerable to these pollutants. Waste from agriculture and
industries can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of

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industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to
chemical and radioactive hazards.
Soil, water, and air pollution can be a result of improper waste disposal
and occurs when either of them becomes contaminated with hazardous
materials. Not only does this contribute to the creation of greenhouse gas
effects but also causes significant harm to marine and wildlife. Ignorance of
people about proper waste disposal and laziness can cause improper garbage
disposal. Some people do not follow the rules of proper waste disposal. They
always throw it in what place they want, and they have no care of what will be
its effect.
Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause

serious problems. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the
process, it may smell, or generate methane gas, which is explosive and
contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes
may cause pollution.
Sources of Human Exposures
1. Exposures occur through

a. Ingestion of contaminated water or food
b. Contact with disease vectors
c. Inhalation
d. Dermal
2. Points of contact, Soil adsorption, storage, and biodegrading
3. Plant uptake
4. Ventilation
5. Runoff
6. Leaching
7. Insects, birds, rats, flies, and animals
8. Direct dumping of untreated waste in seas, rivers, and lakes results in
the plants and animals that feed on it
Impacts of solid waste on health
1. Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation

2. Uncollected waste can obstruct the stormwater runoff resulting in a
flood
3. Low birth weight
4. Cancer
5. Congenital malformations
6. Neurological disease

Province of Laguna
7. Nausea and vomiting
8. Increase in the hospitalization of diabetic residents living near
hazardous waste sites.
9. Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury
The Negative Effects of the Improper Removal and Disposal of Waste
1. Soil contamination - It does not only affect plant growth, but it is also
unhealthy to humans and animals feeding on those plants. Take the case of
plastic bottles. When they eventually break down, they release DEHA
(diethyl hydroxylamine), a carcinogen that affects our reproduction
systems, causes liver dysfunction, and weight loss.
2. Air contamination - Waste that releases dioxins are also dangerous and
pose a health risk when they diffuse into the air that we breathe. Landfill
gas produced by the decomposing wastes can be explosive and can harm
nearby communities.
3. Water contamination - Untreated sewages can destroy and suffocate

marine habitats, such as corals. Contaminated water is also dangerous
and harmful to humans who consume fish and other marine life.
4. Bad impact on human health - Improper disposal of waste can greatly affect
the health of the population living nearby the polluted area or landfills.
Exposure to improperly handled wastes can cause skin irritations, blood
infections, respiratory problems, growth problems, and even reproductive
issues.
5. Impact on animals and marine life- The effects of pollution caused by

improperly disposed wastes and rubbish, Styrofoam, and cigarette butts
have been known to cause deaths in marine animals. Animals who
consume grasses near contaminated areas or landfills are also at risk of
poisoning due to the toxins that seep into the soil.
6. Disease-carrying pests- Mosquitoes breed in cans and tires that collect

water and can carry diseases such as malaria and dengue. Rats find food
and shelter in landfills and sewage, and can carry diseases such as
leptospirosis and salmonellosis.
7. Adversely affect the local economy- Landfill facilities that are mismanaged
can cause the local economy to sink, which can then affect the livelihood of
the locals

Province of Laguna

Province of Laguna

Province of Laguna
Performance Tasks
PT1
Direction: Using the graphic organizer, cite the effects of improper waste disposal in human health
and the environment from the given article.

Province of Laguna
PT2
Direction: Group of 5 students. Using the box given below, create a slogan on the conservation of a
wealthy environment. Rubrics will be used to evaluate your output

Province of Laguna
Learning Resources
1. Acosta Herma D. et al. Science Learners Material Grade 10,2015

2. Commission on Higher Educvation. Earth and Life Science for Senior High School. C.P. Garcia Ave.,
Diliman, Quezon City Philippines. Commission on Higher Education, 2016
3. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing
4. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.
5. Kasten Lileth P. Secondary Education Curriculum: Integrated Science, 2012
6. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/
7. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
8. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233
9. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.
Earth Mass Movements

https://youtu.be/dLMBFsUfjWA
The Billionth years Movement

https://youtu.be/hOh-C335NRk
Introduction to Waste
https://youtu.be/_NkqwMitQ8o
Solid Waste Management

https://youtu.be/9STFO5HjuP8
Waste Disposal
https://youtu.be/5KFYRn1ZRXY

Province of Laguna

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Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

B. Learning Guide Questions:

Defined as movements of the ground that are caused by a sudden

Earthquakes are a result of elastic rebound. Elastic rebound is the sudden

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Earthquakes generally produce two main types of waves.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Main Categories of Body Wave

a. P wave a primary wave, or compression wave

- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth

P waves can move through solids,

b. S wave a secondary wave, or shear wave

- a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a side-to-side

S waves can only travel

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Types of Surface Waves

Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior

Earth’s Internal Layers

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

In 1909, Andrija Mohoroviˇci´c (moh hoh

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

a. Convergent Oceanic Environments

 At convergent plate boundaries, plates move toward each other and

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 At the divergent plate boundaries that make up the mid-ocean ridges,

 Earthquakes also occur at locations where two continental plates

 At some plate boundaries, there are regions of numerous, closely spaced

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

The study of earthquakes and seismic waves is called seismology. Many

 Vibrations in the ground can be detected and recorded by using an

A modern three-component seismograph consists of three

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

P waves are the fastest-moving

Scientists who study earthquakes are interested in the amount of energy

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 The Richter scale measures the ground motion from an

Moment Magnitude Scale

 a measurement of earthquake strength based on the amount of energy

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 The moment magnitude of an earthquake is expressed by a number.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Earthquakes and Society

Movement of the ground during an earthquake seldom directly causes many

 An earthquake whose epicenter is on the ocean floor may cause a giant

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Before an earthquake occurs, be prepared. Keep on hand a supply of

After an earthquake, be cautious. Check for fire and other hazards.

Earthquake Warnings and Forecasts

Humans have long sought methods by which to predict earthquakes. Accurate

Today, scientists study past earthquakes to predict where future earthquakes

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Some earthquakes are preceded by little earthquakes called foreshocks.

Scientists use a variety of sensors to detect slight tilting of the ground

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

How are volcanoes formed?

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING