ARTICLE IN PRESS

JOURNAL OF
FOOD COMPOSITION
AND ANALYSIS
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276
www.elsevier.com/locate/jfca

Review

Vitamin losses: Retention during heat treatment and continual changes

expressed by mathematical models
Emı́lia Lešková, Jana Kubı́ková, Eva Kováčiková, Martina Košická,
Janka Porubská, Kristı́na Holčı́ková
Výskumný Ústav Potravinársky, Priemyselná 4, 824 75 Bratislava, Slovakia
Received 19 December 2003; received in revised form 5 August 2004; accepted 20 April 2005

Abstract

Processing and cooking conditions cause variable losses of vitamins. Losses vary widely according to cooking method and type of
food. Degradation of vitamins depends on specific conditions during the culinary process, e.g., temperature, presence of oxygen, light,
moisture, pH, and, of course, duration of heat treatment. The most labile vitamins during culinary processes are retinol (vegetable
boiling, 33% retention), vitamin C (the most damaging factors are cooking and oxidation), folate (leaching into the cooking water, 40%
retention), and thiamin (cooking, retention 20–80%). Niacin, biotin, and pantothenic acid are quite stable, but information on some
vitamins, especially vitamins D and K, is incomplete. The percentage losses of some nutrients in foods after cooking treatment were
frequently reported: not continual changes during heat treatment, only modifications at the beginning and after heat treatment. Changes
of nutrients in food during the culinary process have not yet been sufficiently investigated. A few authors have attempted to summarize
the kinetic data which can be used to describe the time–temperature effect on nutrients.
r 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Vitamin losses; Thermal degradation; Kinetic models

1. Introduction pH, and obviously length of exposure. In the research on

Vitamins are organic compounds that are indispensable
in very small amounts in the diet. Vitamins form a
heterogeneous group of substances and are vital nutrients.
They have specific and individual functions to promote
growth or reproduction, or to maintain health and life.
Vitamins regulate metabolic processes, control cellular
functions, and prevent diseases, such as scurvy and rickets.
Conventional nutritional science now recognizes 13 vita-
mins divided into two categories, the fat-soluble vitamins
of which there are four, and the water-soluble vitamins of
which there are nine. These are listed in Table 1.
Vitamins are unstable in foods. Processing and cooking
conditions cause vitamin loss. The losses vary widely
according to cooking method and type of food. Vitamin
degradation depends on specific parameters during the
culinary process, e.g., temperature, oxygen, light, moisture,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +421 51 7448 146; fax: +421 2 555 71 417.
E-mail address: janka.porubska@stonline.sk (J. Porubská).
the retention of nutrients, two methods can be used:
apparent retention (AR) and true retention (TR). The two
methods can be defined as follows (Bergström, 1994;
Murphy et al., 1975):
nutrient content per g cooked food
%AR ¼
ðdry wtÞ
100,
nutrient content per g raw food
%TR ¼
nutrient content per g cooked food
g food after cooking

100.
nutrient content per g raw food
g food before cooking
Few authors mention whether their results are evaluated
according to the AR or TR method. To assess and improve
the nutritional status of the population, data on the retention
of vitamins are necessary, because a large portion of the food
consumed is cooked or prepared. The significant milestone of
collecting such a data and references was the European Food
Data Systems (EUROFOODS) project on Nutrient Losses
and Gains in the preparation of foods (1983–1994),
coordinated by Bergström (1994). This paper reviews the

0889-1575/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.014
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E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276 253

Table 1
Vitamins and vitamers and their some commonly used synonyms

Vitamin group Vitamins Synonyms Vitamers

Fat-soluble
Vitamin A Retinol Vitamin A1, all-trans-retinol, vitamin A1 alcohol,
axerophtol, or axerol
Retinal Vitamin A1 aldehyde, retinene, retinaldehyde
Retinoic acid Tretinoin, vitamin A1 acid
Vitamin A2 3-Dehydroretinol, 3,4-didehydroretinol
Provitamin A Carotenoides a-Carotene
b-Carotene
g-Carotene
b-Cryptoxanthin
Echinenon
Vitamin D Ergocalciferol Vitamin D2
Cholecarciferol Vitamin D3
Provitamin D3 7-Dehydrocholesterol, 7-procholesterol
Provitamin D2 Ergosterol

Vitamin E Tocopherols a-Tocopherols

b-Tocopherols
g-Tocopherols
d-Tocopherols
Tocotrienols a-Tocotrienol
b-Tocotrienol
g-Tocotrienol
d-Tocotrienol
Vitamin K Phylloquinone Vitamin K1, vitamin K1(20), phytomenadione
Menaquinone vitamin K2, vitamin K2(n), farnoquinone
Menadione Vitamin K3

Water-soluble
B-complex Thiamin Vitamin B1, aneurin
Riboflavin Vitamin B2
Folates Vitamin BC, folacin Folic acid
Folate
Pantothenic acid VITAMIN B5
Niacin Vitamin PP, vitamin B3 Nicotinic acid
Nicotinamide
Pyridoxine Vitamin B6 Pyridoxal
Pyridoxol
Pyridoxamine
Cobalamin Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin
Hydroxocobalamin
Biotin Vitamin H
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
Dehydroascorbic acid

existing knowledge on the vitamin stability during the
culinary processes noted in the literature. Further informa-
tion on retention factors and mathematical models of
vitamin destruction in food is reported in integrated tables.
2. Review of particular studies of vitamin stability
2.1. Fat-soluble vitamins
2.1.1. Retinoids and carotenes
Vitamin A is stable under an inert atmosphere; however,
it rapidly loses its activity when heated in the presence of
oxygen, especially at higher temperatures. Eitenmiller and
Laden (1999) reported that many studies exist in the
literature on the stability of all-trans-retinol and b-carotene
in foods during processing and storage. The b-carotene
retention depends on the species of vegetable and the type
of cooking method. Carotenoids are extremely susceptible
to degradation. Their highly unsaturated structure makes
them sensitive to heat, oxygen, and light (Clydesdale and
Francis, 1976; Britton, 1992). The authors expressed
vitamin A as b-carotene, retinol or retinol equivalent.
Hence, to clarify, b-carotene provides 80% of vitamin A
value measured as retinol equivalents where: 1 retinol
equivalent ¼ 1 mg of retinol ¼ 6 mg of b-carotene ¼ 12 mg
of other provitamin A carotenoids (Desorby et al., 1998).
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254 E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276
Effects of cooking (98 1C for 30 min) on carotenoid
content of cassava cultivars were studied by Penteado and
Almeida (1988). Provitamin A activity expressed as retinol
equivalents/100 g ranged from 2.8 to 13.9 for raw and 4.9
to 10.7 for cooked samples at 98 1C for 30 min. Cooking
decreased the provitamin A activity by 20–55%. Nagra and
Khan (1988) estimated the b-carotene (expressed as retinol
equivalent) of 17 types of vegetables before and after
60 min cooking. The loss of b-carotene in cooking ranged
from 10% (vegetable sponge) to 59% (carrot). In
accordance with Peil et al. (1982), vitamin A retention for
cooked and drained coated rice was determined to be 70%.
Similarly, Klein and Perry (1982) indicated that retinol
retention in cooked cabbage was 82% and 98% in cooked
corn. Pandya and Patel (1972) determined the effect of
different cooking temperatures on the vitamin A potency
of ghee (a type of clarified butter used in Indian cookery)
samples. Average values for vitamin A (in IU g1) and
carotene (in mg g1) are listed in Table 2.
Krehl and Winters (1950) studied the effect of cooking
on losses of total carotenoids in vegetables, using different
volumes of water. The results clearly showed that the
highest retention was obtained when the vegetables were
cooked without addition of any water and that the lowest
retention was associated with the use of a large amount of
water during cooking. Sant’Ana et al. (1998) investigated
the influence of different methods of food preparation on
the stability of carotenoids in carrots. Lower retention
levels of a-carotene show its lower stability as a function of
preparation (56.0–78.0%), whereas b-carotene was more
stable, with a retention percentage of 68.8–89.1%. The
moist/dry-cooking caused the greatest losses. Water-cook-
ing without pressure resulted in a higher retention of a- and
b-carotenes (78.0% and 89.0%, respectively). This effect
can be explained on the basis of the lower temperature used
in the cooking. The authors suspect that the absence of
water in steam-cooking would reduce losses as well.
However, the use of a higher temperature led to greater
loss than the absence of water. Thus, the smallest losses of
vitamin A content were observed in a case of water-
cooking without pressure (13.6%), followed by steam-
cooking (19.8%), water-cooking with pressure (25.0%),
and moist/dry-cooking (34.3%).
Speek et al. (1988) investigated the effect of processing
on the carotenoid content of Thai vegetables and showed
Table 2
Average values for vitamin A and carotene at different temperatures
(Pandya and Patel, 1972)
Temperature (1C) Vitamin A Carotene
(mg g1)
(IU g1) (mg g1)
120 15.53 4.659 4.930
180 12.75 3.825 3.786
200 12.33 3.699 3.446
220 9.79 2.937 2.078
that average losses of vitamin A activity were 14% for
boiling and 24% for frying. Sungpuag et al. (1999) studied
the effects of local preparation and cooking procedures on
the vitamin A content of traditional Thai food. In general,
the retinol content of cooked food was lower than that for
the uncooked ones. For vegetables, blanching resulted in
7–11% loss of b-carotene, while steaming, frying, and
boiling showed losses of 15%, 18%, and 43%, respectively.
Kmiecik and Lisiewska (1999) investigated the effects of
blanching and storage temperature on the preservation of
b-carotene. They considered that even blanching of the
chive leaves before freezing reduced the level of b-carotene
by 20%; the pre-treatment of the blanching ensures its
good preservation of b-carotene at 20 or 30 1C, even for
periods of up to 12 months. Similarly, blanching, packa-
ging, and thermal processing of jalapeño peppers at 100 1C
for 30 min resulted in a 25% decrease in total provitamin A
activity (Howard et al., 1994).
Effects of spices (turmeric, onion powder) and acidulants
(citric acid, tamarind) were investigated on the retention of
b-carotene in vegetables (amaranth, drumstick leaves,
pumpkin, carrot) during pressure-cooking and open-pan
boiling by Gayathri et al. (2004). They noticed that
in the absence of spices or acidulants, pressure-cooking
and open-pan boiling led to decreases in b-carotene
levels of 21–71% and 16–67%, respectively. During
pressure-cooking of pumpkin and during both cooking
methods in leafy vegetables, the addition of turmeric
improved b-carotene retention. Onion powder improved
retention of the carotenoid during boiling of amaranth,
carrot, and drumstick leaves and pressure-cooking
of amaranth. Tamarind increases b-carotene retention
during boiling of leafy vegetables and pressure-cooking
of pumpkin and carrot, whereas citric acid had the
same effect during boiling of amaranth and pressure-
cooking of pumpkin and drumstick leaves. Combined
addition of acidulants and spices appeared to exert a
synergistic effect on b-carotene retention in amaranth
during boiling.
According to Sungpuag et al. (1999), boiling the entire
piece of chicken liver resulted in 5% loss of retinol; boiling
with cutting and grilling resulted in losses of 8% and 16%,
respectively. Greater losses (43%) were observed for egg
omelette compared to hard-boiled egg (11%)—the protec-
tion is attributed to the shell, while exposure to direct heat
and air, as in omelette preparation, resulted in greater loss.
Stepanova et al. (1982) reported that in various meat
samples (chicken, hen, duck, rabbit) prepared by boiling,
frying, or braising (in a sauce), vitamin A and b-carotene
were the least preserved substances; the best cooking mode
for preservation of all vitamins was frying chops, which
preserved 85–100% of original vitamin A in the meat. In a
similar manner, Smirnov (1970) recognized that thermal
preparation is of importance. During roasting, the content
of vitamin A is decreased by 10–15% and in some cases by
30%, respectively, whereas the losses are much lower
during braising.
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The retentions of b-carotene in vegetables cooked by
household microwave steaming, stir-frying with oil or
water, and boiling to the same degree of overall accept-
ability were compared by Masrizal et al. (1997). The
greatest mean b-carotene retention was observed in green
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) followed by spinach (Spinacea
ikeracea), Nappa cabbage (Brassica pekinensis), and water
spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). Greater retention of b-carotene
was obtained in vegetables prepared by microwave steam-
ing and stir-frying with oil than those stir-fried with water
or boiled. Similarly, Chen and Han (1990) noted that the
total carotene content in conventionally cooked water
spinach was lower than when it is microwaved or steam-
cooked. Padmavati et al. (1992) noted that b-carotene losses
were lower when heating was kept to a minimum. They also
reported that deep-frying resulted in a double loss
compared to shallow frying.
Assessment of retinol in milk showed no significant
effect of pasteurization at 75–90 1C on vitamin A content;
there were no significant differences in vitamin A concen-
tration among raw, pasteurized, and cooked milks (Bilic
and Sieber, 1988).
Olunlesi and Lee (1979) measured a 65% decrease in the
original b-carotene content during canning of carrots and a
56% decrease for carrots pureed for baby food. A similar
observation was also made by Kim and Gerber later. An
apparent increase in carotene content after canning has
also been reported, and this was explained by the loss of
soluble solids in the canned carrots, leading to an increase
of the vitamin A value reported on a dry-matter basis (Kim
and Gerber, 1988).
Vitamin A is quite stable under an inert atmosphere, but
it rapidly losses its activity when heated in the presence of
oxygen, especially at higher temperatures. Carotenoids are
more susceptible to degradation, as they are sensitive to
heat, oxygen, and light; simultaneously, b-carotene is more
susceptible than a-carotene. From mentioned heat treat-
ments boiling seems to be the most damageable process (up
to 67% losses). On the other hand, frying could be assumed
to be gentler as it was in the case of vitamin A. In meat,
retention levels were 85–100%, and in vegetables, retention
of b-carotene was about 80% as well. Similar results can be
observed during steaming, with losses of only 13–20%.
Results clearly showed that the highest retention was
obtained when the vegetables were cooked without
addition of water and that the lowest retention was
associated with the use of a large amount of water during
cooking. Also, the blanching of various vegetables before
freezing can reduce the level of b-carotene by 7–20%;
blanching pre-treatment ensures a good preservation of
b-carotene even for 12 months. Reviewed results are
summarized in Table 3.
2.1.2. Vitamin D
Vitamin D is susceptible to the alkaline pH range, light,
and heat (Bolin, 1982; Harris, 1987). Although information
255
on the stability of vitamin D in foods is quite limited, the
general opinion is that the stability is high (Kilcast, 1994).
Mawer and Gomes (1994) determined the contents of
vitamin D and its metabolites in raw and cooked meat and
found these compounds to be very stable during cooking.
On the other hand, Bennink and Ono (1982) reported
vitamin D losses of 35–40% for cooked beef. In their study,
cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) decreased from 0.103 mg/100 g
in raw separable lean beef (wt% fat: 5.6) to 0.092, 0.091,
and 0.082 mg/100 g (meaning 11%, 12%, and 20%) in
broiled, roasted, and braised lean beef, respectively.
Clausen et al. (2003) studied the vitamin D3 and 25-
hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD3) retention in raw and
cooked pork cuts. Cooking caused significant increases in
vitamin D3 and 25OHD3 calculated per 100 g in all parts
and in the whole cut. Thus, although the fat lost by
cooking may contain vitamin D3 and 25OHD3, the major
determinant for the increased concentrations seems to be
water loss (increase in dry-matter content). The absolute
amounts of losses due to the cooking process can be
calculated to 0.46 mg for vitamin D3 and 0.09 mg for
25OHD3. The conclusion was reached that cooking
increased contents of vitamin D3 and 25OHD3 on weight
basis, but not when expressed in relation to dry-matter
content.
No losses were found during pasteurization and ster-
ilization of milk or during production of dried or
evaporated milk (Davı́dek et al., 1990). Furthermore,
exposure to air did not affect the stability of vitamin D
in milk, but some loss occurred when milk was exposed to
light (Renken and Warthesen, 1993).
Scott and Latshaw (1991) observed that treatment of fish
oil with steam added per hour to 3 h (deodorization) caused
a major loss of vitamin D3 in all of the steps of commercial
processing of menhaden fish oil. Bhuiyan et al. (1993)
found that vitamin D3 is quite stable during smoking of
Atlantic mackerel. Mattila et al. (1999) investigated the
retention of vitamin D compounds in foods naturally rich
in vitamin D (fish, eggs, and mushrooms) following
common household cooking methods and storage. They
found that vitamin D3 retention was high in baked fish,
with typical losses of o10% as calculated on a dry-matter
basis (TR 78–104%); vitamin D3 loss was particularly high
in Baltic herring (23%) possibly due to high-fat content.
Retention of vitamin D3 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 was
good in cooked yolks with losses of less than 10% and
6–11%, respectively, while ergocalciferol (vitamin D2)
retention was good.
As a conclusion, it can be stated that vitamin D is
relatively stable, although the studies reviewed have not
given an adequate relationship between the culinary
methods used and an unequivocal stage of retention.
However, fat content is probably the crucial factor
affecting retention during culinary treatment. A high-fat
content usually results in a high vitamin D loss due to
dripping off, while low-fat content might probably disrupt
thermal isolation and vitamin D is more easy accessible to
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Table 3
Vitamin A and carotenes

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention (%) Losses (%) References

Retinol Cooking Cabbage 82 Klein and Perry

(1982)
Corn 98
Making omelette Egg 43 Sungpuag et al.
(1999)
Hard-boiling 11
Cutting and boiling Chicken liver 8
Boiling 5
Grilling 16
A Water-cooking without 99 1C, 21 min/100 1C, Carrots 13.6/25.0 Sant’Ana et al.
pressure/with pressure 17 min (1998)
Cooking and draining 1 g rice in 100 ml Coated rice 70 Peil et al. (1982)
water
Moist/dry-cooking 99/200 1C, 21/15 min Carrots 34.3 Sant’Ana et al.
(1998)
Steam-cooking 115–120 1C, 15 min 19.8
Roasting Animal fats 10–30 Smirnov (1970)
Frying Meat (chicken, 85–100 Stepanova et al.
hen, duck, rabbit) (1982)
a-Carotene Various methods Carrots 56.0–78.0 Sant’Ana et al.
(1998)
b-Carotene 68.8–89.1
a- And b- Water-cooking without 78.0 and 89.0
carotenes pressure
b-Carotene Blanching 94–96 1C, 90 s Chive leaves 20 Kmiecik and
Lisiewska (1999)
Vegetables 7–11 Sungpuag et al.
(1999)
Cooking 60 min Vegetable sponge 10 Nagra and Khan
(1988)
Carrot 59
Boiling Vegetables 43 Sungpuag et al.
(1999)
3.0–5.5 min Green beans, 57–79 Masrizal et al. (1997)
spinach, Nappa
cabbage, water
spinach
Open-pan boiling The absence of spices Amaranth, 16–67 Gayathri et al. (2004)
or acidulants drumstick leaves,
carrot, pumpkin
Pressure-cooking 21–71
Microwave steaming 3.25–5 min Green beans, 74–87 Masrizal et al. (1997)
spinach, Nappa
cabbage, water
spinach
Steaming Vegetables 15 Sungpuag et al.
(1999)
Frying 18
Stir-frying with oil 3.0–9.42 min Green beans, 65–80 Masrizal et al. (1997)
spinach, Nappa
cabbage, water
spinach
Stir-frying with water 2.67–8.0 min 61–77
Pureeing Carrots 56 Olunlesi and Lee
(1979)
Canning 65
Carrot juice 77 Kim and Gerber
(1988)
Vitamin A Boiling Thai vegetables 14 Speek et al. (1988)
activity
Frying 24
Provitamin A Cooking 98 1C, 30 min Cassava cultivars 20–55 Penteado and
activity Almeida (1988)
Thermal processing 100 1C, 30 min Jalapeño peppers 25 Howard et al. (1994)
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Table 4
Vitamin D
Vitamin Treatment Conditions
D Cooking
D3 Broiling
Roasting
Braising
Baking 172 or 200 1C, 20 min
172 1C, 20 min
Boiling 10 min
25-OHD3
 25-OHD ¼ 25-dihydroxy Ds
3
other aggressors (e.g., light). Retention of vitamin D varied
in the range of 60–90% during culinary treatment of meat
and fish. Reviewed results are summarized in Table 4.
2.1.3. Vitamin E
Machlin (1991) indicated that natural tocopherols are
not very stable. Mašková et al. (1994) observed that
culinary treatment of meat decreased vitamin E retention
to 40–80%, except in broiling and roasting of pork meat,
where the decrease of vitamin E content was lower.
Bennink and Ono (1982) reported 33–44% losses of
vitamin E during heat treatment of beef meat, whereas
Piironen et al. (1987) observed only 5% losses of vitamin E.
Driskell et al. (1998) observed that pork chops grilled at
204 1C had significantly lower TR values for vitamin E
than those prepared at lower grill temperatures. Even at the
lower grill temperatures, only around 80% of the vitamin
was retained after cooking. This retention value is much
higher than the retention value (44%) reported previously
for pork loin roasts (Driskell et al., 1995); however, the
chops were cooked for a shorter period of time than roasts
and there was less dripping. Dal Bosco et al. (2001)
observed a 39% reduction of a-tocopherol content in
boiled, 12% in fried, and 14% in roasted rabbit meat.
Simonne and Eitenmiller (1998) studied vitamin E
content of chicken nuggets and breaded shrimp before
and after frying. Chicken nuggets were previously flash-
fried during the manufacturing process; the increase in
total vitamin E was not substantial (from 4.6 mg/100 g
before frying to 4.9 mg/100 g after frying). However, in
breaded shrimp, the total vitamin E increased from 0.6 mg/
100 g before frying to 5.1 mg/100 g after frying in non-
fortified oil and to 5.8 mg/100 g after frying in oil fortified
with retinyl palmitate. The authors noted that the presence
of tocotrienols in the oils may affect the stability of retinyl
palmitate by protecting against thermal oxidation. They
observed that total vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrie-
nols) decreased more rapidly in palm oil than in soybean or
corn oil.
Carlson and Tabacchi (1986) studied frying oil dete-
rioration and loss of vitamin E during food service
operations. They reported a significant increase in vitamin
257
Food Losses (%) References
Beef 35–40 Bennink and Ono
(1982)
Lean beef 11
12
20
Fish o10 Mattila et al. (1999)
Baltic herring 23
Yolks o10
6–11
E loss in frying oil during 4 days of commercial frying.
However, there was no significant change in the vitamin E
content of French fries, due to an increase in fat uptake of
the fries which compensated the vitamin E reduction of the
frying oil. These results were confirmed by Gordon and
Kourimská (1995), who found that a-tocopherols was lost
much faster than other tocopherols in rapeseed oil, with a
reduction of 50% after 4–5 frying operations. The authors
also showed that the use of rosemary extract (0.1%) or
ascorbyl palmitate (0.02%) significantly reduced the
tocopherol loss rate. The stabilizing effect of rosemary
extract was slightly greater than the ascorbyl palmitate
used in similar concentrations. According to Holland
(1991a, b), foods fried in vegetable oils are enriched with
a substantial amount of vitamin E, because all vegetable
oils used for frying contain vitamin E at a concentration of
between 15 and 49 mg a-tocopherol equivalents/100 g.
Yoshida et al. (1990) found that after 8–10 min of
microwave heating, the amount of tocopherols decreased
substantially in linseed, olive, and palm oils, whereas 90%
of tocopherols remained in corn and soybean oils. They
concluded that the reduction in tocopherols in oils is not
necessarily in agreement with the chemical properties of the
oils. Yoshida and Kajimoto (1989) reported that micro-
wave cooking led to a considerable degree of tocopherol
degradation, as has been observed in other foods, such as
soya.
Mašková et al. (1996) found that the retention of total
tocopherols during cooking of legumes was not affected by
the type of culinary treatment and that it has never
decreased to less than 88%, similar to the observation
made by Grela et al. (1993). On the contrary, Yoshida and
Kajimoto (1989) reported that the microwave processing of
soybean seeds led to an approximately 40% loss of
tocopherols.
Murcia et al. (1999) investigated the losses of vitamin E
in egg yolk during cooking. They found that tocopherols
are unstable in the presence of oxygen, light, and even some
unsaturated fats. This explains the losses observed during
preparation, particularly by more drastic methods, such as
in the preparation of omelette, when beating prior to
cooking breaks the micellar phase of the yolk, thus
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increasing susceptibility to oxidation. The above process
may lead to the formation of peroxides, such as inter-
mediate products in the auto-oxidation of the fatty acids,
destroying the oxidation sensitive vitamins, such as vitamin
E since these would react with the peroxides. Besides the
loss of vitamin E, there would be a decrease in the levels of
essential fatty acids.
Steinhart and Rathjen (2003) investigated effects of food
heating treatments (baking, roasting, stewing) on the levels
of tocopherols added to the foods via margarine. The
highest total tocopherol losses occurred during roasting of
steaks (17.2–49.9 mg/100 g fat). In cakes and cookies,
tocopherol losses varied with margarine type but were
higher in cakes than in cookies. In stewed peas, total
tocopherol losses were much greater when stewing was
carried out in a stainless-steel pot (57%) than in a glass pot
(0.7%). In foods that showed only small decreases in
tocopherols (baked foods, roast potatoes), the extent of
tocopherol loss was related to the polyunsaturated fatty
acids content of the margarine. However, this was not the
case in foods subjected to strongly oxidative conditions
(roasted steak, peas stewed in metal pot).
It is difficult to determine the most aggressive culinary
method for vitamin E. Probably, the most common
heat treatments, such as broiling or roasting, cause a high
loss of the nutrient. The vitamin E content in food
treated in vegetable oil increases or remains stable because
vegetable oils are a good source of the fat-soluble
vitamin. On the other hand, more frequently used
vegetable oils for frying decrease in vitamin E content
themselves. Probably, the factor that most influences
the vitamin E content in vegetable oils is microwave
heating, although the stage of degradation varies with the
type of oil used. In addition, vitamin E is unstable in the
presence of reducing agents: oxygen, light, and peroxides
(occurring as a result of unsaturated fat auto-oxidation).
Retention of vitamin E is in the range of 44–95% during
culinary treatment of various types of meat, and 60–93% in
the case of legumes. Reviewed results are summarized in
Table 5.
2.1.4. Vitamin K
The various forms of vitamin K are relatively stable to
heat and are retained after most cooking processes. This
vitamin is destroyed by sunlight and decomposed by
alkalis. Vitamin K1 (phytomenadione or phyloquinone) is
only gradually decomposed by atmospheric oxygen (Ott-
away, 2002).
According to Ruan and Chen (2002), more vitamin K
was retained when microwave heating was used (cooking in
a minimum of water).
In general, only a few studies deal with the stability of
this vitamin. This situation could be the result of the
good stability of the vitamin during culinary treatment
combined with sufficient human intake of this nutrient
world-wide.

Table 5
Vitamin E

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention (%) Losses References

(%)

a-Tocopherol Boiling 100 1C, 8 min Rabbit meat 39 Dal Bosco et al. (2001)
Roasting 200710 1C, 15 min 14
Frying 17575 1C, 3 min 12
After 4–5 times of using Rapeseed oil 50 Gordon and
Kourimská (1995)
E Heating Beef meat 33–44 Bennink and Ono
(1982)
Meat 5 Piironen et al. (1987)
Cooking 75 min, soaking 15 h Beans 93 Mašková et al. (1996)
45 min, soaking 16 h Peas 88
165 min, soaking 16 h Soybean 92
Boiling 96–99 1C, 150 min Beef meat 74
Pressure-cooking 50 min Beans 91
Microwaving 60 min, soaking 17 h 93
Corn and soybean oils 90 Yoshida et al. (1990)
Legumes 40 Yoshida and Kajimoto
(1989)
Grilling 93 1C Pork meat 80 Driskell et al. (1998)
Pork loin roast 44 Driskell et al. (1995)
Flash-frying 176 1C Chicken nuggets 107 Simonne and
Eitenmiller (1998)
Frying Breaded shrimp 850
Vitamin E Making omelette Egg yolk 46.76 Murcia et al. (1999)
activity
Boiling 10 min 78.37
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2.2. Water-soluble vitamins
2.2.1. Vitamin C
Cooking losses of L-ascorbic acid depend on the degree
of heating, leaching into the cooking medium, surface area
exposed to water and oxygen, pH, presence of transition
metals, and any other factors that facilitate oxidation
(Eitenmiller and Laden, 1999).
Nursal and Yücecan (2000) observed changes in frozen
spinach, peas, green beans, and okra commercially cooked
in different stewpans with and without thawing. Frozen
peas were the vegetables found to be the least (3.5% loss)
affected, and frozen green beans the most (19.6% loss)
affected by thawing (at room temperature 22.372 1C, 3 or
4 h, respectively). While cooking (boiled for 5 min, then
simmered for 30 min) spinach, peas, green beans, and okra
without thawing resulted in 46.5%, 25.2%, 18.2%, and
21.6% vitamin C loss in a double-thickness stainless-steel
pan, boiling them in pyrex pan resulted in 58.5%, 36.0%,
42.1%, and 28.2% vitamin C loss, respectively. It was
found that thawing before cooking caused more vitamin C
loss, thus using no or only a small amount of water is
advantageous. Moreover, the results show that frozen
vegetables must not be thawed before cooking. Laing et
al. (1978) found that the rates of ascorbic acid (AA)
degradation were dependent on oxygen availability, which
in turn depended on the temperature and moisture content;
the higher the water activity, the greater the loss of vitamin
C. Also, the type of vegetable furnished a significant source
of variation with regard to retention values. Rumm-Kreuter
and Demmel (1990) in their study used different quantities
and locations of water (cooking either over or in the water)
in the various cooking methods. In addition, Sungpuag
et al. (1999) observed that losses of AA were minimal when
vegetables were cooked without any water, while maximum
loss was associated with cooking in a large amount of
water. Some cooking methods for potatoes (‘‘wet’’ using tap
water and ‘‘dry’’ using microwave, pressure cooker, and
acuthermal potatoes) were assessed by Golaszewska and
Zalewski (2001), who concluded that the best quality of
potatoes was achieved by dry methods, where losses of
vitamin C were 8–17%, whereas wet methods induced
higher losses of vitamin C (20–40%).
Kmiecik and Lisiewska (1999) noticed that blanching
reduced the level of vitamin C in chive leaves by 29%.
Similarly, these authors (1997) reported 47–51% losses of
vitamin C in parsley leaves affected by blanching. They also
quoted (1996) losses of vitamin C in broccoli (41–42%) and
in cauliflower (28–32%); these losses occurred during
blanching. Howard et al. (1999) also observed the AA loss
in broccoli and green beans from blanching. When jalapeño
peppers were blanched, packed, and heat treated (100 1C for
30 min), a 75% decrease in total AA was noted (Howard
et al., 1994). In contrast, in all mentioned cases pre-treatment
by blanching ensures good preservation during storage of the
frozen product and in the food stored at lower temperature,
and also encourages a very good conservation of vitamins.
259
Ilow et al. (1995) determined the effects of various
cooking methods on vitamin C losses in samples of several
vegetables. Compared with the uncooked control, average
losses were 13.9% in microwave technique, 32.8% in
pressure-cooking, 37.8% and 53.3% in conventional
cooking, starting with boiled or cold water, respectively.
Vallejo et al. (2002) investigated the influence of high
pressure boiling (3 min), steam-cooking (3.5 min), micro-
waving (5 min), and low pressure boiling (5 min) on the
vitamin C content of broccoli florets. Results showed great
differences among the various processes. Clear disadvan-
tages were detected when cooking in a microwave because
of a high loss of vitamin C (40%) in comparison with other
treatments. On the other hand, steaming had minimal
effects on vitamin C.
The retention of vitamin C in vegetables cooked by
household microwave steaming, stir-frying with oil, stir-
frying with water and boiling was compared by Masrizal et
al. (1997). Vitamin C retention ranged from a mean of
34.1% to 79.4% among the various vegetables and cooking
methods. Overall, higher retention values were often
observed in vegetables prepared by microwave steaming
and stir-frying with oil, followed by stir-frying with water,
and finally by boiling. Similarly, Warthessen et al. (1984)
reported mean vitamin C retention values for spinach and
green beans cooked in the microwave (67.8% and 78.6%)
and by boiling (33.9% and 63.7%). Moreover, Krehl and
Winters (1950) noted mean values of 49.1% for spinach
and 58.5% for green beans boiled in water to cover.
According to Schnepf and Driskell (1994), retention of
vitamin C was the highest in fresh broccoli, cauliflower,
potatoes, frozen corn, and peas cooked by microwave
steaming, followed by microwave-boiling, steaming, and
boiling. This result is in line with a study by Howard et al.
(1999), who found that microwave cooking had minimal
effects on AA.
Eheart and Gott (1965) reported that AA retention for
broccoli was the highest after stir-frying as well as after
cooking in a small amount of water. For green beans,
however, only cooking in a small amount of water resulted
in high vitamin C retention. In both cases, stir-frying
caused similar or better retention than cooking with a large
quantity of water or cooking with microwaves. Augustin
et al. (1981a, b) observed that over-baking, in comparison
with frying, resulted in lower retention of vitamin C.
Alvi et al. (2003) subjected vegetables for AA content
in raw-cooked and peeled-cooked forms. The loss of AA
in cooking raw brinjal (Solanum melogena) was 61.45%
and in cooking peeled was 97.291%. The percentage losses
of AA for the same two parameters for bitter gourd were
53.42% and 89.75%, respectively. The losses for AA were
49.92% and 68.32% for colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum).
The losses of AA were 89.12% for cooked and 97.70% for
peeled and cooked tomato, respectively.
After cooking, the vitamin C content in potatoes
decreases by about 30%, and keeping them hot for 1 h at
a temperature of 55–60 1C (Hägg et al., 1998), decreases the
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content by another 10%. The vitamin C content in
potatoes was slightly higher in pre-peeled potatoes
conserved in 20% CO2+80% N2 compared to 5%
O2+20% CO2+75% N2. According to Karlström and
Jonsson (1980), the decrease in vitamin C content in
potatoes depends on the amount of oxygen present. An
absence of oxygen will lead to smaller reductions. Likewise,
Burg and Fraile (1995) noted that the presence of oxygen
was the main cause of destruction of vitamin C when
extending the residence time in the oven. They also noticed
that vitamin C destruction during domestic cooking was
caused mainly by enzymatic destruction and enzyme
thermal deactivation reactions.
Results from studies showed great differences among
variant processes. Overall, higher retention values were
often observed in vegetables prepared by steaming (up to
99%), microwave steaming and stir-frying with oil,
followed by stir-frying with water, and finally by boiling
which caused the most extensive damage, with losses of up
to 75%. Losses of AA are minimal when vegetables are
cooked without any water, while maximum losses are
associated with cooking in a large amount of water. It was
found that thawing before cooking causes more vitamin C
loss. Therefore, frozen vegetables must not be thawed
before cooking. To counter the significant losses, a
blanching pre-treatment ensures good preservation during
storage of frozen products and also yields very good
stability of the vitamin. Decrease in vitamin C content in
vegetables depends also on the amount of oxygen present;
the absence of oxygen led to a lower reduction. Reviewed
results are summarized in Table 6.
2.2.2. Thiamin
Thiamin is highly unstable at alkaline pH. Stability
depends on the extent of heating and on the food matrix
properties. Thermal degradation occurs even under slightly
acid conditions (Eitenmiller and Laden, 1999). Ball (1994)
reported that alkaline pH during cooking or processing
leads to extensive thiamin losses. Use of baking powder in
cake mixtures was mentioned as an example of when losses
of 50% or higher can occur. Thiamin is destroyed in
chocolate and baked products (Eitenmiller and Laden,
1999).
Al-Khalifa and Dawood (1993) studied thiamin reten-
tion during the cooking of chicken meat. Thiamin was
more sensitive to heat than was riboflavin. Higher losses of
thiamin occurred during roasting and deep-frying, while
braising and microwave cooking resulted in lower losses. In
addition, thiamin retention appeared to be higher in the
dark muscles, probably because of lower water loss caused
by draining. Mašková et al. (1994) observed the retention
of thiamin in the range of 20–85% during culinary
treatment of meat. Their results are in line with those of
Cooksey et al. (1990) observed during roasting. Results of
thiamin losses in chicken meat are in line with those of Hall
and Lin (1981), Barbeau and Schnepf (1989), and Ang
et al. (1978), in contrast to Al-Khalifa and Dawood (1993),
who observed a retention of thiamin of only 45% during
roasting. Bognár (1984) reported losses of thiamin in
various conditions of heat treatment of meat in the range
of 9–70%.
Fillion and Henry (1998) found that loss of thiamin
during frying depended on the type of meat: 70% loss for
light chicken muscles and 30% loss for pork. In pork, in
which the content of thiamin is much higher than in any
other meat, the vitamin appeared to be more stable.
Batenhorst et al. (1995) observed that retention values
for thiamin were significantly lower in braised pork loin
roasts than in those prepared by cooking in a bag and by
roasting. Retention values for thiamin were significantly
higher in Chef’s PrimeTM pork loin roasts cooked at a
maximum internal temperature of 71 1C than those cooked
at 82 1C (Batenhorst et al., 1995; Driskell et al., 1995).
Driskell et al. (1998) found that thiamin retention values
for pork chops grilled at 204 1C were significantly lower
than those cooked at lower grill temperatures. Thiamin
retention values were higher than the retention values given
in Handbook 8–10 United States Department of Agricul-
ture (USDA, 1992) for braised, broiled, or roasted
separable lean fresh pork, and those reported by Kylen et
al. (1964) and Driskell et al. (1995) for pork roasts.
Retention values in the later study were 44–56% (Driskell
et al., 1998). Less thiamin was lost in drippings from the
cooked chops than from the roasts. Showell et al. (2003)
observed that thiamin retention for baked bacon was lower
than that of pan-fried or microwaved bacon, in spite of
similarities in cooking yields. Thiamin in baked bacon was
more labile due to a higher cooking temperature.
Kimura et al. (1990) compared various methods of
cooking pork and found that thiamine loss was highest
during boiling (70%), followed by steaming (40%),
parching (35%), and frying (30%). This was explained by
the water-soluble nature of the vitamin that was leached
out into the water. Lassen et al. (2002) studied thiamin
retention in pork meat cooked at 72 1C. At this relatively
low internal temperature there seems to be no thermal
degradation of the vitamin, as most of the lost vitamins
were retained in the juice. On an average, 26% of thiamin
was carried off to the juices. Likewise, Rhee et al. (1993)
investigated retention in browned ground meat (beef, pork,
lamb), and observed that thiamin retention was 66%.
Samples of lower initial fat levels tended to show lower
vitamin retention percentage. This is in line with the
observation that ground meat with a lower initial fat
content lost most of its weight through water loss during
cooking, resulting in greater amounts of the water-soluble
vitamins leached out into the pan drippings.
Oseredczuk et al. (2003) found that both marinading and
pasteurization of fish are the most damaging processes for
thiamin. The high sensitivity of this vitamin to heat caused
losses during pasteurization (Belliot, 2003).
Mašková et al. (1996) reported that thiamin retention
was in the range of 32–96% under all procedures of
culinary treatment (both classical and pressure-cooking) of
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Table 6
Vitamin C

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention Losses (%) References

(%)

C Blanching 94–96 1C, 90 s Chive leaves 29 Kmiecik and Lisiewska

(1999)
Parsley leaves 47–51 Lisiewska and Kmiecik
(1997)
96–98 1C, 3 min Broccoli 41–42 Lisiewska and Kmiecik
(1996)
96–98 1C, 4 min Cauliflower 28–32
Blanching, 100 1C, 30 min Jalapeño peppers 75 Howard et al. (1994)
packaging, heat-
treating
Thawing 22.372 1C, 5 h Spinach 15.7 Nursal and Yücecan (2000)
22.372 1C, 3 h Peas 3.5
22.372 1C, 4 h Green beans 19.6
22.372 1C, 3 h Okra 9.6
(Unthawed/thawed) Double-based Spinach 46.5/50.0
boiling stainless-steel pan,
5+25 min
Peas 25.2/39.6
Green beans 18.2/34.7
Okra 21.6/33.1
Teflon pan, Spinach 51.1/55.8
5+25 min
Peas 32.5/39.4
Green beans 30.5/36.2
Okra 25.4/36.7
Pyrex pan, Spinach 58.5/60.3
5+25 min
Peas 36.0/40.8
Green beans 42.1/48.4
Okra 28.2/41.6
Boiling 3.0–5.5 min Various vegetables 34–56 Masrizal et al. (1997)
Spinach 33.9 Warthessen et al. (1984)
Green beans 63.7
Boiling in water to Spinach 49.1 Krehl and Winters (1950)
cover
Conventional Starting with boiled Cauliflower, white cabbage, 37.8 Ilow et al. (1995)
cooking water Brussels sprout,
French bean, Potatoes
Starting with cold 53.3
water
5 min Broccoli 72.8 18.9(+8.3 cwa) Vallejo et al. (2002)
Cooking Potatoes 20–40 Golaszewska and Zalewski
(2001)
Cooking+keeping 55–60 1C, 1 h Potatoes 30+10 Hägg et al. (1998)
hot
Pressure-cooking Cauliflower, white cabbage, 32.8 Ilow et al. (1995)
Brussels sprout,
French bean, Potatoes
High pressure 3 min Broccoli 74.5 9.1 (+16.4 cw) Vallejo et al. (2002)
boiling
Microwaving, Potatoes 8–17 Golaszewska and Zalewski
pressure-cooking (2001)
Steaming 3.5 min Broccoli 99.7 0.3 Vallejo et al. (2002)
Microwave steaming 3.25–5.0 min Various vegetables 52–79 Masrizal et al. (1997)
Microwaving Cauliflower, white cabbage, 13.9 Ilow et al. (1995)
Brussels sprout,
French bean, potatoes
5 min Broccoli 54.0 37.7(+8.3 cw) Vallejo et al. (2002)
Spinach 67.8 Warthessen et al. (1984)
Green beans 78.6
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Table 6 (continued )

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention Losses (%) References

(%)

C Stir-frying with oil/ 3.0–9.42 min/ Various vegetables 57–79/49–68 Masrizal et al. (1997)
with water 2.67–8.0 min
Deep-frying 65–83 Augustin et al. (1981a, b)
Pan-frying 70–85
Oven-baking 57–71
AAb Blanching 9072 1C, 110 s Broccoli 30 Howard et al. (1999)
Carrots 14
9772 1C, 60 s Green beans 17
Cooking Brinjal 61.45 Alvi et al. (2003)
Bitter gourd 53.42
Colocasia 49.92
Tomato 89.12
Cooking in small/ Broccoli 74.2/44.8 Eheart and Gott (1965)
large amount of
water
Green beans 76.0/59.6
Peeling and cooking Brinjal 97.29 Alvi et al. (2003)
Bitter gourd 89.75
Colocasia 68.32
Tomato 97.70
Microwaving Broccoli 56.8 Eheart and Gott (1965)
Green beans 58.9
Stir-frying Broccoli 76.6
Green beans 57.5
a
cw, in cooking water.
b
AA, ascorbic acid.

legumes, with the exception of lentils, for which classical
processing appeared to allow more retention. Matthews
(1989), Haytowitz and Matthews (1983), Augustin et al.
(1981a, b), and Deshpande and Damodaran (1990) found
nearly identical values of retention during cooking of beans
and lentils as Mašková et al. (1996) did. Vargas et al. (1995)
studied the effects of traditional cooking in boiling water,
sautéing, and microwave cooking on the thiamin and
riboflavin content of fresh cabbage and cauliflower. Losses
of thiamin during cooking of cabbage and cauliflower,
respectively, were as follows: in samples that were pressure-
cooked in water for 5 and 10 min, 48.65% and 55.03%; in
samples microwaved in a small amount of water for 8 and
14 min, 29.36% and 43.01%; gently cooked in oil for 4 min,
53.78% and 57.98%; and cooked in oil in a microwave
oven for 3 min, 37.88% and 53.39%.
Görner and Uherová (1980) observed that ultra-high-
temperature sterilization and 6-weeks’ storage at room
temperature caused 10% loss of thiamin in milk. Sierra and
Vidal-Valverde (2001) investigated heat treatment of whole
and skimmed milk at temperatures of 90, 110, and 120 1C
with microwave or conventional systems. These heat
treatments of milk did not produce significant losses of
thiamin content (there was in fact 100% retention). Vidal-
Valverde and Redondo (1993) observed that losses of
thiamin in whole milk were lower than those in low-fat and
skimmed milk. These results were attributable to the fat of
milk, which protected vitamin B1 during heating. Kwok
et al. (1998) studied the effect of thermal processing on
thiamin and riboflavin content in soymilk and found that
losses of thiamin were 12%, 32%, and 3% in soymilk
processed at 90 1C for 60 min, 120 1C for 15 min, and
140 1C for 30 s, respectively.
One of the most important factors affecting thiamin
stability is the pH value of the solution. Even weak alkaline
pH solutions cause degradation. It is likewise unstable in
neutral solutions, since stability is better in acid solutions.
Thiamin is more sensitive to heat than is riboflavin.
Thiamine degradation in milk was about 10%. Losses
occurring during heat treatment of meat (e.g., frying,
braising, cooking, roasting) varied significantly with the
type and part of meat and the water and fat content.
Thiamin retention appeared to be higher in the dark
muscles generally (differences in retention of up to 20%)
probably because of lower water losses. Generally, the
water solubility of thiamin causes it to leach into juices
during cooking. The fat content might be an important
factor with a positive influence on thiamin protection
during thermal treatment. Reviewed results are summar-
ized in Table 7.
2.2.3. Riboflavin
Riboflavin is stable with respect to both oxidation and
heat, but sensitive to light (Roche, 1976).
Mašková et al. (1994) reported that losses of riboflavin
were seen only during lengthy boiling; the retention of
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Table 7
Thiamin (vitamin B1)

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention (%) Losses (%) References

Thiamin Cooking 75 min, soaking 15 h Beans 73 Mašková et al.

(1996)
45 min, soaking 16 h Peas 81
165 min, soaking 16 h Soybean 53
90 1C, 60 min Soymilk 12 Kwok et al. (1998)
120 1C, 15 min 32
140 1C, 30 s 3
Various Meat 9–70 Bognár (1984)
93 1C (internal Pork meat 26 cja Lassen et al. (2002)
temperature 72 1C),
72–80 min
Boiling 96–99 1C, 150 min Beef meat 20 47 ewb Mašková et al.
(1994)
Pork 70 Kimura et al. (1990)
Braising Chicken meat, light 48.9/64.0 Al-Khalifa and
muscle/dark muscle Dawood (1993)
Heat treatment 90, 110, and 120 1C Whole and skimmed 100 Sierra and Vidal-
milk Valverde (2001)
Sterilizing and 140 1C, 3–4 s; 6 weeks Milk 10 Görner and
storage Uherová (1980)
Pressure-cooking 50 min Beans 42 Mašková et al.
(1996)
40 min Peas 44
60 min Soybean 32
5 min Fresh cabbage 48.65 Vargas et al. (1995)
10 min Cauliflower 55.03
Parching Pork 35 Kimura et al. (1990)
Steaming Pork 40
Microwaving Chicken meat, light 41.8/63.5 Al-Khalifa and
muscle/dark muscle Dawood (1993)
60 min, soaking 17 h Beans 49 Mašková et al.
(1996)
Microwaving in 8 min Fresh cabbage 29.36 Vargas et al. (1995)
small amount of
water
14 min Cauliflower 43.01
Microwaving in oil 3 min Fresh cabbage 37.88
Cauliflower 53.39
Baking Using baking powder in Chocolate and baked 450 Eitenmiller and
cake mixtures products Laden (1999)
Roasting Chicken meat, light 30.4/28.8 Al-Khalifa and
muscle/dark muscle Dawood (1993)
Gently cooking in 4 min Fresh cabbage 53.78 Vargas et al. (1995)
oil
Cauliflower 57.98
Frying Chicken meat, light 28.2/45.8 Al-Khalifa and
muscle/dark muscle Dawood (1993)
Light chicken muscles 70 Fillion and Henry
(1998)
Pork 30 Kimura et al. (1990)
Stir-frying without 150 1C, 6.5 min Minced beef, lamb, 66 Rhee et al. (1993)
added oil and pork
a
cj, in cooking juice.
b
ew, extracted to water.

riboflavin was 72% in meat, with simultaneous leaching
of 18% of riboflavin into water. Al-Khalifa and Dawood
(1993) noted that higher losses of riboflavin occurred
during roasting and deep-frying, while braising
and microwave cooking resulted in lower losses in
chicken meat. In addition, riboflavin retention appeared
to be higher in dark muscles. Lassen et al. (2002)
observed that, on average, 13% of the riboflavin in
pork roasts was carried off in the juices during cooking
at 72 1C.
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Mašková et al. (1996) explained an eventual decrease of
the riboflavin content during culinary treatment of legumes
through extraction into water during soaking and cooking.
In this study, the retention in culinary treatment of legumes
varied from 72% to 111%; the highest reduction of
retention was in soybeans during processing in a pressure
cooker. Retention approximating to 100% was determined
by Haytowitz and Matthews (1983) in cooking lentils.
Augustin et al. (1981a, b) found a 60–90% decrease of
retention in beans, and the same results were described by
Matthews (1989) and Deshpande and Damodaran (1990).
Vargas et al. (1995) studied the effects of traditional
cooking by boiling in water, sautéing, and microwave
cooking in the riboflavin content of fresh cabbage and
cauliflower. Losses of riboflavin during cooking were:
cabbage and cauliflower pressure-cooked in water for 5 and
10 min, 65.88% and 42.80%; cabbage and cauliflower
microwaved in a small amount of water for 8 and 14 min,
50.65% and 28.70%; cabbage and cauliflower cooked
gently in oil for 4 min, 66.24% and 46.13%; cabbage and
cauliflower cooked in oil in a microwave oven for 3 min,
57.24% and 38.65%. The percentage of total riboflavin loss
for macaroni through leaching during cooking at 90 1C for
10 min was 18.3%, and 53.3% at 90 1C during 20 min
(Ayranci and Kaya, 1993). According to Hashmi (1972),
thermal decomposition of riboflavin occurs at much higher
temperatures than 90 1C. Therefore, the losses observed in
the Ayranci study most probably resulted from leaching
into the cooking water.
Leonhardt et al. (1996) observed that vitamins E and C
supplementation in pigs’ diets had a protective effect on
riboflavin retention in liver during heating.
Riboflavin is very resistant to dry heat, acid solutions,
and air (oxygen), but very sensitive to light, especially at
high temperatures and pH values. During cooking ribo-
flavin leaches into water. A high decrease of riboflavin
retention during culinary treatment of legumes is
probably caused by leaching into water during cooking
after pre-soaking. Among the heat treatments and vege-
tables mentioned, the highest losses (up to 66%) were
observed in cabbage. Reviewed results are summarized in
Table 8.
2.2.4. Folates
Folate losses during cooking and preparation are the
result of a combination of thermal degradation and
leaching of the vitamin into the cooking water (Eitenmiller
and Laden, 1999). The degree of loss can be influenced by
environmental factors, including pH, O2 content, metal ion
concentrations, antioxidant levels, duration, and product-
to-water ratio (Keagy, 1985; Gregory, 1994; Hawkes and
Villota, 1989). The presence of reducing agents (AA) in the
food can increase folate retention during thermal proces-
sing (Gregory, 1985; Ford, 1967; Chen and Cooper, 1979)
and the presence of metals (Fe2+) can increase folate loss
(Gregory, 1985; Day and Gregory, 1983). Common food
additives (including sodium nitrite used in some cured
products) cause folate destruction (Gregory, 1994; Wogan
et al., 1975). Folate is quite stable in dry products in the
absence of light and oxygen. Folic acid can be added to
cereal products because the vitamin is stable in flour during
storage, and baking causes only small losses (Keagy et al.,
1975). A review by Hawkes and Villota (1989) suggests that
only a very limited amount of retention data on folate from
foods of animal origin, except for milk and milk powder, is
available. In most studies, more attention has been
concentrated on leaching and cooking losses of folates in
vegetables. Meat, poultry, and fish contain rather low
levels of folate, but as leaching losses are not typically
encountered, folate losses in the processing of meat may
not be as high as for vegetables.
McKillop et al. (2002) investigated the effect of different
cooking methods on folate retention in various foods.
Their results showed significant reductions of 51% and
56% in the folate content of spinach and broccoli
compared to values in the raw foods; the reductions are
the result of boiling for typical time periods. In contrast,
steaming spinach or broccoli did not result in a significant
loss of folate content, even after the maximum steaming
periods of 4.5 and 15 min, respectively, which produced
overcooked consistencies. Their results, which showed a
markedly greater folate retention after steaming compared
to boiling of green vegetables under domestic conditions,
are in good agreement with the findings of De Souza and
Eitenmiller (1986) and Lund (1988), which latter are based
on industrial processing. They reported that steam blanch-
ing resulted in greater retention of folate compared to
water blanching. Likewise, other forms of cooking that
minimize the direct contact of food with the cooking water,
such as pressure-cooking (Dang et al., 2000) and micro-
wave cooking (Chen et al., 1983a, b; Klein, 1989) have been
found to be preferable to boiling in terms of folate
retention. These results are in good agreement with those
of Leichter et al. (1978), who reported folate loss of 62%
for broccoli boiled for 10 min. Lin and Lin (1999) studied
the effect of Chinese stir-fry cooking on folate contents of
vegetables. The results indicated that the boiled vegetables
retained only 50% of folate. Spinach and pak-choi retained
the least amount of folate only 30%. Boiled non-leafy
vegetables retained 50–90% of the folate. Stir-fried leafy
vegetables retained 43–70% of the folate, 9–15% in soup.
Stir-fried non-leafy vegetables retained amounts that were
nearly or more than 100% of the folate, except for snap
bean, for which there was 54–75% retention, and sponge
gourd, for which the loss in soup was substantial. There-
fore, the stir-frying process compared to the boiling process
may retain more folate in vegetables. Malin (1977)
examined the effects of cooking, processing, and storage
on the total folate activity of Brussels sprouts and found
relatively small losses after water blanching. The author
attributed this stability in part to the presence of relatively
high concentrations of endogenous AA in addition to its
physical geometry (low surface area/volume ratio). Sotiriadis
and Hoskins (1982) also found that prior to processing, an
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Table 8
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention Losses References

(%) (%)

Riboflavin Cooking 93 1C (internal temperature Pork meat 13 cja Lassen et al. (2002)
72 1C), 72–80 min
75 min, soaking 15 h Beans 99 Mašková et al. (1996)
45 min, soaking 16 h Peas 106
165 min, soaking 16 h Soybean 87
Boiling 90 1C, 10 min Macaroni 18.3 Ayranci and Kaya (1993)
90 1C, 20 min 53.3
96–99 1C, 150 min Beef meat 72 18 cj Mašková et al. (1994)
Braising Chicken meat: light 63.9/93.1 Al-Khalifa and Dawood (1993)
muscle/dark muscle
Pressure-cooking 50 min Beans 98 Mašková et al. (1996)
40 min Peas 96
70 min Soybean 72
5 min Cabbage 65.88 Vargas et al. (1995)
10 min Cauliflower 42.80
Microwaving Chicken meat: light 87.7/94.0 Al-Khalifa and Dawood (1993)
muscle/dark muscle
60 min, soaking 17 h Beans 81 Mašková et al. (1996)
Microwaving with 8 min Cabbage 50.65 Vargas et al. (1995)
small amount of
water
14 min Cauliflower 28.70
Microwaving with 3 min Cabbage 57.24
oil
Cauliflower 38.65
Gently cooking in 4 min Cabbage 66.24
oil
Cauliflower 46.13
Roasting Chicken meat: light 68.5/59.6 Al-Khalifa and Dawood (1993)
muscle/dark muscle
Frying 45.8/78.6
a
cj, in cooking juice.

addition of supplemental vitamin C to canned vegetables
like okra and tomatoes provided additional stability to
folate contents during subsequent storage. Little protective
effect was observed during the heat process itself.
Strålsjö et al. (2003) found that almost no losses of folate
occurred when strawberry desserts were made from frozen
berries. This finding is contradictory to the data reported in
four European food tables, which indicate that only 3–30%
of folate was retained in various strawberry products like
jam and stewed desserts (Livsmedelsverket, 2002; Levneds-
middelstyrelsen, 1996; Holland et al., 1991a, b; Souci et al.,
1994). Viberg (1998) estimated evaporation of water during
the cooking process of strawberry jam to be 5%, which has
not been considered in the calculation by Strålsjö et al.
Dang et al. (2000) investigated the effect of soaking,
boiling, and pressure-cooking on the retention of folates in
legumes. They found 45% and 50.3% retention of folates
in boiled and pressure-cooked peas and 52.6% and 62.1%
retention of folate in boiled and pressure-cooked chick-
peas, respectively. Hoppner and Lampi (1993a, b) reported
retention of 66% and 40% of folates when both chickpeas
and peas were soaked overnight. They also reported about
44% retention of folates when legumes soaked overnight
were heated for 150 min.
Folates of animal origin are reported to be stable during
boiling and frying (Ball, 1998). In the McKillop et al.
(2002) study, cooking beef by direct heat also results in
negligible folate losses, even after a period of prolonged
grilling for 16 min. However, Aramouni and Godber (1991)
reported decreases in the folate content of beef liver of 41%
and 50% as a result of broiling (grilling) and frying,
respectively. Bergström (1994) estimated a retention range
for total folate in meat and poultry to be 55–70% for
boiling, braising and stewing and 60–90% for roasting and
baking. In fish and shellfish, the retention range is
70–100% for poaching and steaming, and 80–90% for
oven cooking.
Chen et al. (1983a, b) investigated free and total folate
contents in various types of teas, and the effect of the
brewing process on the extractability of the folate. They
found that as much as 87% of total folate for black and
80% for green tea were extracted from loose leaves with
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266 E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276

5 min of steeping in boiling water. Extraction was slightly
lower for tea in bags.
Folate is sensitive to sunlight, air, and light and being
heated in acid solutions. Folate is lost in food during
cooking because it breaks down under heat and leaches
into the cooking water. The presence of reducing agents
(AA) in the food can increase folate retention during
thermal processing. Folates of animal origin appeared to
be stable during boiling and frying. The highest retention
was observed in the case of fish and shellfish (70–100%)
and non-leafy vegetables (up to 100%, except in boiled
broccoli), whereas higher losses were observed during
culinary treatment of legumes (up to 60% losses). Cooking
methods that minimize direct contact of food with the
cooking water, such as in pressure-cooking, microwave
cooking, or stir-frying have been found to be preferable to
boiling for folate retention. Reviewed results are summar-
ized in Table 9.
2.2.5. Pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid is the most stable vitamin during
thermal processing with pH levels of 5–7. Large losses can
occur through leaching into cooking water during pre-
paration of vegetables. In milk, pantothenic acid is stable
during pasteurization, since the normal pH of milk is in the
optimal pH stability range (Fox, 1991). Bergström (1994)
has observed that pantothenic acid may be affected by the
acidity of marinade (pH 5.5).
Hoppner and Lampi (1993a, b) found that retention
factors for pantothenic acid in legumes were significantly
influenced by the type of pre-soak method used. Average
retention factors for pantothenic acid in the legumes
soaked overnight (16 h) were higher than those soaked
only 1 h and cooked for 20 or 90 min. The mean retention
of panthothenic acid in legumes cooked for 20 min was
76% without pre-soaking, 33% for short soaking, and 44%
for overnight pre-soaking. For 90 and 150 min cooking

Table 9
Folates

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention Losses References

(%) (%)

Folate Boiling 3.5 min Spinach 51 McKillop et al. (2002)

10 min Broccoli 56
62 Leichter et al. (1978)
2 h, soaking 16 h Chickpeas 52.6 Dang et al. (2000)
Peas 45
1–2 min, open pot Non-leafy vegetables 50–90 Lin and Lin (1999)
1 min, open pot Spinach and pak-choi 30
Cooking Vegetables 50
Soaking overnight Chickpeas 66 Hoppner and Lampi
(1993a, b)
Peas 40
150 min, soaking overnight Legumes 44
Brewing 5 min steeping in boiling Black tea 87 ewa Chen et al. (1983a, b)
water
Green tea 80 ew
Making various Frozen strawberry 3–30 Livsmedelsverket (2002),
strawberry products Levnedsmiddelstyrelsen
like Jam and stewed (1996), Holland (1991a, b),
desserts and Souci et al. (1994)
Boiling, braising and Meat and poultry 55–70 Bergström (1994)
stewing
Pressure-cooking 20 min, soaking 16 h Chickpeas 62.1 Dang et al. (2000)
Peas 50.3
Poaching and steaming Fish and shellfish 70–100 Bergström (1994)
Roasting and baking Meat and poultry 60–90
Baking Fish and shellfish 80–90
Grilling Beef liver 41 Aramouni and Godber (1991)
Frying 50
Stir-frying with 1 min, Chinese wok Leafy vegetables 43–70 9–15 cjb Lin and Lin (1999)
soybean oil
Non-leafy vegetables 100
(except snap bean and
sponge gourd)
Snap bean 54–75
a
ew, extracted to water.
b
cj, in cooking juice.
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E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276 267

times with overnight pre-soaking, losses were 58% and
55%, respectively. These results are confirmed by values
reported in Handbook 8–16 (USDA, 1986) for cooking
times of 20, 75, and 150 min. Short soaking followed by
boiling appeared to be the most severe treatment, causing
the most breaking of legume pods and membranes than
overnight soaking. This probably facilitated the liberation
of bound pantothenic acid and increased leaching of free
vitamins into the soaking water, accounting for the
differences in retention observed. Similar differences were
not evident in legumes cooked for 150 min, but probably
the extra hour exposure to heat diminished any differences
in retention that existed after shorter cooking. However,
using a short soak pre-treatment in cooking dried legumes
may cause lower pantothenic acid retention and additional
losses of the vitamin.
Panthothenic acid is resistant to light, air, and heat at pH
5–7, but it is sensitive to long cooking in water. Retention
factors for panthothenic acid in the legumes (33–76%) were
significantly influenced by the pre-soaking method and
cooking times. Reviewed results are summarized in
Table 10.
2.2.6. Niacin
Niacin is the most stable water-soluble vitamin. Proces-
sing and cooking procedures do not deactivate niacin.
Leaching is usually the primary pathway of its loss during
food preparation (Eitenmiller and Landen, 1995). Ball
(1994) found that dairy-processing operations did not
affect the niacin content in these foods.
Mašková et al. (1994) observed that niacin was quite
stable during dry heat treatment of meat; niacin in meat is
lost when it leaches into cooking water. Identical observa-
tion of retention during cooking of meat are made by
Dawson et al. (1988) and Unklesbay and Dawson (1988).
Similarly, Rhee et al. (1993) observed 78% niacin retention
in browned ground meat. Mašková et al. (1996) also
observed a decrease of niacin retention to 50%; the
decrease was caused by extraction of this vitamin from
legumes into the water. The shorter processing in a
pressure cooker in comparison with the classical procedure
increased niacin retentions in lentils, peas, and beans, but
not in soybeans. These values were comparable with data
obtained by Colakoglu and Oetles (1986), Haytowitz and
Matthews (1983), Matthews (1989), and Augustin et al.
(1981a, b).
Niacin is resistant to heat, air, and oxidants, but it is
hydrolysed in strong acids and alkaline solutions.
It is assumed to be the most stable water-soluble
vitamin. The losses of niacin are caused mainly byleaching
into cooking water. Retention of niacin is in the range of
45–90% within the various culinary treatments of meat
and legumes. In comparison with the classical procedure,
short pressure-cooking could increase niacin retention in
legumes, except in soybeans. Reviewed results are sum-
marized in Table 10.
2.2.7. Vitamin B6
Thermal degradation of vitamin B6 increases as pH rises.
Losses of vitamin B6 in vegetables can be high; they result
from leaching. Eitenmiller and Laden (1999) found that
heat degradation plays a greater role on vitamin B6 in
animal products. Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are more
predominant in animal tissues and milk; these are more
heat labile than pyridoxine, the primary vitamer found in
plants.
Olds et al. (1993) observed that frying meat with batter
resulted in vitamin B6 losses of about 6.5%. The vitamin,
thus, appeared to be stable during deep-fat frying. The
breading and batter probably enhanced retention by
preventing meat juices from escaping, therefore decreasing
the loss of water-soluble vitamins.
Mašková et al. (1994) noted that vitamin B6 retention
was 23% during boiling, while roasting, and broiling

Table 10
Pantothenic acid and niacin

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention (%) References

Pantothenic Cooking 20 min Legumes 76 Hoppner and Lampi

acid (1993a, b)
20 min, soaking 1 h 33
20 min, soaking 16 h 44
90 min, soaking 16 h 58
150 min, soaking 16 h 55
Niacin Boiling 96–99 1C, 150 min Beef meat 45 Mašková et al. (1994)
Cooking 75 min, soaking 15 h Beans 79 Mašková et al. (1996)
45 min, soaking 16 h Peas 67
165 min, soaking 16 h Soybean 86
Pressure-cooking 50 min Beans 90
40 min Peas 87
60 min Soybean 49
Microwaving 60 min, soaking 17 h Beans 56
Stir-frying without oil 150 1C, 6.5 min Beef, lamb, and pork 78 Rhee et al. (1993)
addition mince
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268 E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276
decreased the retention of this vitamin 43–71% in meat.
These data of retention during roasting and broiling were
comparable by the results reported by Bognár (1993) and
Ang et al. (1988); by contrast, these results were higher
than those reported by Uherová et al. (1993). Badiani et al.
(1998) observed that the coefficients of retention of vitamin
B6 were systematically higher in rib loin than in leg.
Driskell et al. (1998) found that chops grilled at 204 1C had
lower mean retention values for vitamin B6 than those
grilled at lower temperatures; however, these differences
were not significant.
The vitamin B6 retention values given in Handbook 8–10
(USDA, 1992) for separable lean fresh pork prepared by
braising, broiling, and roasting were 55%, 68%, and 56%,
respectively. Lushbough et al. (1959) and Driskell et al.
(1995) reported that cooked pork roasts had mean vitamin
B6 retention values of 56–62%. The vitamin B6 retention
values observed for pork chops in the Driskell et al.
(1998) study were slightly higher than those reported for
pork roasts and cooked fresh pork with the exception of
broiled pork. Less of the vitamin B6 may have been lost
in the drippings from the cooked chops than from the
roasts.
Bognár (1993) studied the effects of cooking on vitamin
B6 in food. Stewing and frying reduced the total vitamin B6
content of beef by 56% and 58%, respectively, and reduced
the total vitamin B6 content of pork by 58% and 45%. Part
of the pyridoxal (which almost completely degraded with
heating) was transaminated into pyridoxamine. Little effect
on pyridoxine levels was observed. In vegetables, vitamin
B6 losses after boiling ranged from 16% (Brussels sprouts)
to 61% (broccoli), and after steaming ranged from 10%
(Brussels sprouts) to 24% (broccoli). Total loss of vitamin
B6 during braising was lower (2–11%) than for boiling or
steaming; this result applied to all foods tested except
wheat. Results suggest that pyridoxal was the least stable
derivative in vegetable foods. Apart from broccoli,
pyridoxine, and pyridoxine-b-glucoside in vegetables were
largely resistant to heat. The relatively good retention of
pyridoxal and the increase in pyridoxamine after cooking
broccoli suggest partial conversion of pyridoxine into
pyridoxamine and pyridoxal.
Mašková et al. (1996) reported that vitamin B6 was
stable in culinary treatment of lentils and beans, whereas in
soybean the retention decreased to 50% during pressure-
cooking. The content of vitamin B6 was negligible in raw
peas and therefore its retention was not detected by
culinary treatment. Ekanayake and Nelson (1990) and
Matthews (1989) give retention rates near 90% in the
culinary treatment of beans and lentils. Lower retentions
were found by Haytowitz and Matthews (1983), Raab et al.
(1973), and Augustin et al. (1981a, b).
Sierra and Vidal-Valverde (2001) observed that heat
treatment (continuous-flow microwave, conventional heat-
ing) of whole (3.4% fat) and skimmed (0.5% fat) milk at
90 1C produced losses of either vitamin B1 or vitamin B6
(pyridoxamine and pyridoxal). However, at temperatures
of 110 and 120 1C, while vitamin B1 content of milk
remained constant, pyridoxamine content increased (4–5%
and 9–11%, respectively) and pyridoxal content decreased
(5–6% and 9–12%, respectively). Also, Vidal-Valverde and
Redondo (1993) mentioned that vitamin B6 losses did not
depend on the fat content of milk.
Vitamin B6 is resistant to heat, acid, and alkaline, but
sensitive to light in neutral and alkaline solutions.
Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are more heat, oxygen, and
light labile than pyridoxine (the primary vitamer in plants).
While losses of this vitamin in vegetables were caused by
leaching into water (10–47%; in the case of boiled broccoli,
up to 61%), in foods of animal origin they resulted mainly
from heat degradation (40–58%). Vitamin B6 losses did not
depend on the fat content in milk. Reviewed results are
summarized in Table 11.
2.2.8. Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is generally considered to be stable under
most food processing operations, but like all water-soluble
vitamins, it is subject to large losses through leaching into
the cooking water. The most important associated com-
pound with vitamin B12 activity is cyanocobalamin, which
is decomposed by both oxidizing and reducing agents. In
neutral and weak acid solutions, it is relatively stable to
both atmospheric oxygen and heat. It is only slightly stable
in alkaline solutions and strong acids. The stability of
vitamin B12 is significantly influenced by the presence of
other vitamins (Ottaway, 2002).
Twenty-one popular Kuwaiti meat, fish, chicken, cereal,
and sweet dishes were analysed for their content of
vitamins by Sawaya et al. (1998). Vitamin B12 content
ranged from undetectable to 1.32 mg/100 g. Moreover,
nutrient retention after heat treating was assessed by
Badiani et al. (1998), who noted that both evaporative and
drip losses were higher in leg than in rib loin, and the
nutrients susceptible to loss through dripping during
cooking were retained better in rib loin than in leg. Lamb
was found to be a valuable source of vitamin B12. Rhee
et al. (1993) studied the effects of brown-and-drain cooking
procedures on levels of water-soluble vitamins in minced
beef, lamb, and pork, observing retention for cobalamin in
the range of 66–78%. The nutrient composition of ground
beef prepared by frying, broiling, or microwaving was
evaluated by Love and Prusa (1992). They noticed that
vitamin B12 levels remained the same as in raw meat.
According to Ruan and Chen (2002), microwave heating
(cooking in a minimum of water) results in higher retention
of vitamin B12.
Fisher et al. (1996) examined six scallop processing
methods with regard to changes in moisture content and
nutritional equivalency. They found that scallop moisture
content increased with processing time. Increasing moist-
ure content decreased nutrient levels on a per weight basis.
Moisture loss resulting from freezing/thawing or cooking
concentrated some nutrients (as protein and minerals),
while it contributed to the loss of water-soluble nutrients.
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Table 11
Pyridoxine, cobalamin, and biotin

Vitamin Treatment Conditions Food Retention Losses (%) References

(%)

Pyridoxine Cooking 75 min, soaking 15 h Beans 100 Mašková et al. (1996)

165 min, soaking 16 h Soybean 77
Boiling 96–99 1C, 150 min Beef meat 23 37 ewa Mašková et al. (1994)
Brussels sprouts 16 Bognár (1993)
Broccoli 61
Stewing Beef 56 Bognár (1993)
Pork 58
Braising Separable lean of fresh 55 Handbook 8–10
pork (USDA, 1992)
Pressure-cooking 50 min Beans 90 Mašková et al. (1996)
60 min Soybean 53
Continuous-flow 90 1C Whole milk (3.4% fat) 0 Sierra and Vidal-
microwaving, conventional Valverde (2001)
heating
Skimmed milk (0.5%
fat)
Microwaving 60 min, soaking 17 h Beans 69 Mašková et al. (1996)
Steaming Brussels sprouts 10 Bognár (1993)
Broccoli 24
Frying with batter Meat 6.5 Olds et al. (1993)
Roasting 150 1C Lamb rib-loin 53.3 Badiani et al. (1998)
Lamb leg 39.5
Roasting Separable lean of fresh 56
pork
Broiling 68
Frying Beef 58 Bognár (1993)
Pork 45
Pyridoxamine Continuous-flow 110 1C Whole milk (3.4% fat) 104 Sierra and Vidal-
microwaving Valverde (2001)
120 1C 111
Pyridoxal 110 1C 94
120 1C 88
Cobalamin Roasting 150 1C Lamb rib-loin 83.7 Badiani et al. (1998)
Lamb leg 65.4
Stir-frying without added oil 150 1C, 6.5 min Beef, lamb, and pork 66–78 Rhee et al. (1993)
mince
Sterilization Milk 20 Ottaway (2002)
Biotin Boiling 20 min Legumes 95 Hoppner and Lampi
(1993a, b)
Boiling and soaking 20, 90, and 150 min 88, 95, 88
Cooking 5–15 Velı́šek (1999)
Meat 80
Pasteurizing Milk 10–15
Canning Fruit and vegetables 30
a
ew, extracted to water.

Vitamin B12 belongs to nutrients that are the most affected
by increasing moisture content.
Vitamin B12 is normally stable during pasteurization of
milk, but up to 20% can be lost during sterilization
(Ottaway, 2002).
Most vitamin B12 losses result from leaching into water.
Thus, water content is significant: the higher the quantity
of water used for cooking, the higher the vitamin loss
during heat treatment of food. Another important factor
affecting the stability of this vitamin is pH level. However,
thermal processing in general influences the stability of
vitamin B12. Reviewed results are summarized in Table 11.
2.2.9. Biotin
Hoppner and Lampi (1993a, b) found that in legumes
cooked for 20 min, more biotin was retained than in those
prepared with pre-soaking treatments. However, there was no
significant difference in biotin retention between short and
overnight pre-soaking treatments. Mean retention for biotin
in legumes cooked for 20 min was 95%, while mean retention
for both pre-soak methods cooked for 20, 90, and 150 min
were 88%, 95%, and 88%, respectively. Hawkes and Villota
(1989) found that biotin retention was much less affected by
leaching and heat destruction during meal preparation of
dried legumes than were other water-soluble vitamins.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
270 E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276
Velı́šek (1999) reported 85–90% retention during milk
pasteurization, while in cereal products during baking
losses are minimal. As mentioned above, retention in
legumes depends on the soaking time. During the
preservation of fruit and vegetables, 70% retention is
common, and the losses are from leaching into the juices;
thus, this can be assumed as a loss when the juice is not
consumed.
Dietary biotin exists partly in a protein-bound form,
which requires extraction by enzyme or acid hydrolysis.
Only the free form is water extractable (Bonjour, 1991).
This may explain the very high degree of retention of biotin
found in prepared dried legumes. Thus, biotin retention
was significantly higher than that of other water-soluble
vitamins (Hoppner and Lampi, 1993a, b).
Biotin is stable when heated in the presence of light and
in neutral or even in strong acid solutions, but it is labile in
alkaline solutions. In general, biotin retention is relatively
high during heat treatment (80% in meat, 85–90% in milk
pasteurization, 85–95% in legumes, 70% in preservation of
fruits and vegetables). Biotin retention is lesser affected by
leaching and heat destruction during meal preparation of
dried legumes than was observed in the case of other water-
soluble vitamins. Reviewed results are summarized in
Table 11.
3. Tables of retention factors of food constituents
Bognár (2002) and the USDA (2003) have published
tables of nutrient retention factors for the calculation of
nutrient composition of cooked food. The nutrient
composition of a cooked food may be calculated from
the uncooked food by applying nutrient retention factors.
Most public and private sector databases use these
retention factors to calculate nutrient values or to quantify
the nutrient values, where analytical data for cooked food
are unavailable. The resulting values quantify the nutrient
content retained in a food after nutrient losses from heating
or other food preparations.
Bognár’s Tables of Weight Yield and Recommended
Average Nutrient Retention Factors during Preparation of
Food and Dishes by Cooking are the major source of
nutrient retention data, especially for countries in the
EUROFOODS network. These tables contain average
retention factors of food constituents after cooking for 39
typical food (dish) categories. The actual retention factors
for proteins, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, cook-
ing salt, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phos-
phorus, and iron are statistically approved values. For
some other food constituents, particularly for niacin,
biotin, folate, pantothenic acid, vitamins E, K and B12,
fatty acids, amino acids, and cholesterol, the available
retention data are incomplete and should be regarded as
the estimated retention values.
The USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors is the
major source of nutrient retention data for the USA and
some international food composition databases. Release 5
(2003) of this data set contains a total of 25 factors for
calculating the retention of vitamins and minerals and
alcohol during food preparation.
4. Mathematical models of vitamin destruction in food
4.1. Models
Mathematical models interpreting the time dependence
on vitamin retention or vitamin destruction are not yet
adequately complete. In general, research has commonly
paid attention to a certain type of technological operation,
a certain vitamin or groups of vitamins in the selected food
commodity. As regards the knowledge available in the
literature, these models were developed mostly for nutrient
changes during storage and processing. General models of
nutrient changes during cooking—the kinetic formulas,
which could be used to describe the time–temperature
effect on nutrients—are only rarely developed.
Several kinetic parameters have been used to describe the
effect of time–temperature treatments on the rate and
extent of nutrient destruction. Basically, two parameters
are needed: the rate of nutrient destruction at a reference
temperature; and the dependence on the rate of destruction
at a reference temperature. In most chemical and engineer-
ing applications, these two parameters have been the
reference reaction rate constant (kR) at temperature TR and
the Arrhenius activation energy (Ea).
The general rate expression for concentration depen-
dence on time is
dc=dt ¼ kR cn ,
where c is the concentration of component, t the time, kR
the rate constant at temperature TR, and n the order of the
reaction for the component. For thermal destruction of
nutrients in food, the order of the reaction (n) is often 1
(i.e., first-order reaction), or at least, the disappearance of
the nutrient can be described by the first-order model
(i.e., pseudo-first order).
For a first-order reaction, this equation, by integrating,
can be expressed as
c ¼ c0 ekt ,
where c0 is the initial concentration of the component.
The temperature dependence on the rate constant is
expressed by the Arrhenius equation:
k ¼ A expðE a =RTÞ,
where A is the Arrhenius constant (frequency factor), Ea
the activation energy, R the universal gas constant
(8.314 kJ mol1 K1), and RT ¼ 2.479 kJ mol1. The Ar-
rhenius equation is often used to describe the temperature
dependence on the rate constant as
ln k=k0 ¼ E a =RT,
where k0 is a pre-exponential factor, Ea the activation
energy, R the gas constant, and T the absolute temperature.
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E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276
Rate constants are determined by regression analysis of
concentration as a function of time at constant tempera-
ture. Then, using the Arrhenius law, the kinetic parameters
are estimated.
4.2. Kinetics of vitamin destruction
The results dealing with kinetics of vitamin destruction
during processing and storage are given in detail below.
Mulley et al. (1975) described the thermal degradation of
thiamin in buffered solution (pH 6), pea puree, beef puree,
and pea in-brine puree as the first-order kinetics. Values of
activation energy were calculated to be in the range of
113–123 kJ mol1. However, deviations from the first-order
kinetics were observed. The deviations were attributed to
the heating equipment used by some researchers, which
could not be operated under ideal conditions. Kessler
and Fink (1986) fit the kinetic data on the thermal
decomposition of thiamin in cow’s milk with a second-
order reaction kinetics and determined the two kinetic
parameters (frequency factor and activation energy) to be
5.14
1011 min1 and 100.8 kJ mol1, respectively.
Ayranci and Kaya (1993) studied the retention of
thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin during macaroni cooking.
They found that losses of the vitamins exhibited first-order
behaviour. The activation energy for the losses of thiamin
during macaroni cooking was determined to be 25,
11 kJ mol1 for riboflavin and 22 kJ mol1 for niacin
amide. The value of activation energy for thiamin
degradation is lower than the value reported by Mulley et
al. (1975). They predicted the main outlet for thiamin loss
during boiling of macaroni as leaching into cooking water.
The activation energy obtained for riboflavin loss is in
reasonable agreement with Woodcock et al.’s (1982) data.
Nguyen et al. (2003) investigated the stability of folic
acid and 5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid with respect to
thermal and combined high pressure/thermal treatments
in phosphate buffer (model system). They found that
degradation of both folates followed first-order reaction
kinetics. At ambient pressure, the estimated values of
Arrhenius activation energy of folic acid and 5-methylte-
trahydrofolic acid thermal degradation were 51.66 and
79.98 kJ mol1, respectively. Caution must be used in
interpreting the stability of folates and the concentration
of folic acid and 5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid in real food
systems (even at the same pH), since the existence of
natural oxidants/anti-oxidants can influence the stability of
folates. The concentration of folic acid and 5-methylte-
trahydrofolic acid in native food is lower than in the model
system.
Vieira et al. (2000) determined the thermal degradation
kinetics of both AA and dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA) in
nectar of cupuac- u (Theobroma grandiflorum). Results
showed that DHAA was the intermediate product of
AA degradation. A reversible first-order model described
the AA degradation data properly, with an activation
energy determined as 7475 kJ mol1 and k80 1C ¼ 0.0327
271
0.003 min1. To predict DHAA concentration, a mechanistic
model was derived. To evaluate the temperature dependence
and the kinetic parameters for AA degradation, previously
determined rate constants were replaced by the Arrhenius
equation in the model used. The activation energy of
6579 kJ mol1 and a k80 1C of 0.01370.003 min1 were
estimated for DHAA degradation in nectar. Similarly,
according to Klimczak and Irzyniec (2001), kinetic investiga-
tions showed that the rate of vitamin C degradation followed
the first-order reaction kinetics and was the slowest in
samples frozen with liquid CO2.
Pátkai et al. (2002) analysed the vitamin C content of
model solutions with compositions similar to real citrus
juices as a function of temperature, duration of heat
treatment and initial oxygen and AA concentration.
Authors distinguished two main types of vitamin C
decomposition mechanism: in the presence or in the
absence of oxygen, they developed a new kinetic descrip-
tion, which is based on knowing the concentration of
dissolved oxygen and taking into consideration the
simultaneous processes of aerobic and anaerobic AA
destruction as well. Having summarized the results of their
investigations, the following sequence of major effects
could be established for the most part: O4cnom(nominal
initial vitamin C concentration)4T (in the case of effect on
k1 and Dcmax(maximum concentration change of vitamin
C) as well). Slow increase in both k0 and k1 , in the
temperature range between 80 and 90 1C and a similarly
slow decrease in the reaction rate constants in the
temperature range of 90–100 1C could be often found. In
1 year, a significantly higher decrease in the reaction rate
constant was found, probably because of the use of gas-
permeable packaging-foil during the year in question.
Packaging conditions were found play a primary role in
connection with the effect of dissolved oxygen.
To help model changes in the quality of matter as a
function of storage temperature and time, Nourian et al.
(2003) studied the quality change in stored potatoes and
quantified the associated kinetics parameters (rate con-
stants) and activation energy. The results revealed that
higher temperature resulted in more rapid changes in the
different quality parameters. Elevated temperature ad-
versely influenced the qualitative properties of potatoes,
especially over longer time periods. AA was among the
parameters which decreased as storage time increased. The
decrease was more rapid at higher temperatures. For
instance, AA decreased from 3800 to 3100 mg/100 g in
potatoes stored at 20 1C after 35 days, whereas storage at a
temperature of 4 1C reduced AA to only 3400 mg/100 g,
even after 133 days. Loss of important chemical compo-
nents, such as AA, would contribute to a loss in nutritional
value. Most storage-associated changes were successfully
modelled by a form of the first-order model, and the
derived rate constants were linked to temperature using an
Arrhenius equation. The value of activation energy of
vitamin C degradation was 98.7 kJ mol1. Reviewed results
are summarized in Table 12.
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272 E. Lešková et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) 252–276

Table 12
Kinetic parameters

Vitamin Process Food Reaction EA k0b (s1) References

a
order (kJ mol1)

Thiamin Thermal processing (90, 120, Soymilk First 97.0 1.88
109 Kwok et al. (1998)
and 140 1C)
Buffered solution (pH 6), 113–123 Mulley et al. (1975)
pea puree, beef puree, and
pea in-brine puree
Cow’s milk Second 100.8 8.57
109 Kessler and Fink (1986)
Cooking (50, 75, 80, 85, and Macaroni First 25 1.908 Ayranci and Kaya (1993)
90 1C)
Riboflavin Thermal processing (90, 120, Soymilk First 83.3 1.145
107 Kwok et al. (1998)
and 140 1C)
Cooking (50, 75, 80, 85, and Macaroni First 11 0.020 Ayranci and Kaya (1993)
90 1C)
Niacin amide 22 0.761
Folic acid Thermal processing (above Phosphate buffer (0.2 M, First 51.66725.40 Nguyen et al. (2003)
65 1C) at ambient pressure pH 7)
5-Methyltetra- 79.9874.88
hydrofolic acid
Combined treatment: high 71.88–100.18
pressure+temperature
(100–800 MPa)
AAc Storage (4, 8, 12, 16, and Potatoes First 98.7 Nourian et al. (2003)
20 1C)
Thermal processing Grapefruit juice 21.0 3.90
102 Saguy et al. (1978)
(61.0–96.0 1C)
Thermal processing 22.0 6.10
102
(60.0–1.0 1C)
Thermal processing Lime 58.1 1.55
104 Alvarado and Viteri (1989)
(20.0–92.0 1C)
Thermal processing Lemon (oriente) 46.5 3.59
102
(20.0–92.0 1C)
Thermal processing Tangerine (Costa) 44.6 2.25
102
(20.0–92.0 1C)
Thermal processing Grapefruit 56.9 9.29
103
(20.0–92.0 1C)
Thermal processing Orange juice 128.3 3.23
1013 Johnson et al. (1995)
(70.3–97.6 1C)
Thermal processing 97.4 1.62
109
(70.3–97.6 1C)
Thermal processing (60, 70, Cupuac- u nectar First 7475 Vieira et al. (2000)
75, 80, 90, and 99 1C)
DHAAd 6579
a
EA, activation energy.
b
k0, pre-exponential factor.
c
AA, ascorbic acid.
d
DHAA, dehydroascorbic acid.

5. Conclusion Most of authors, who deal with kinetics studies, have

The stability of the individual vitamins varies from the
relatively stable, as in the case of niacin, biotin, to the
relatively unstable, like thiamin and vitamin C. However,
information about some of the vitamins, especially vitamin
D and vitamin K, is incomplete.
Many times percentage losses of some nutrients in food
after cooking are mentioned. A few authors have
attempted to summarize the kinetic data, which can be
used to describe the time–temperature effect on nutrients.
mainly reported in their articles the changes of nutrients in
food during the storage and processing. Continual changes
of nutrient content in food during culinary processes have
not been sufficiently investigated. Considering, that general
mathematical models cannot be developed concrete matrix
(e.g., structure and nutrition ratio), and processing condi-
tions (e.g., pH value and temperature) to be defined.
Further research on kinetic parameters and continual
changes describing vitamins decomposition is needed to be
undertaken to help promote the development of more
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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reasonable processes in the field of heat treatment of
various foods.
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