CHAPTER A

statistics is a science where it is the collection of data and organization

Collect
Organize
Present
Analyze
Interpret
data

we use it for policy or decision making

basic concepts in stats

1. population - collection of all elements (who you want to study)

2. sample - a part of that population; represents the whole popoulation
3. variable - characteristic/s that you want to study; can assume different values
for different elements.
4. observation - realized value of variable
5. data - collection of observations

types of variables

1. qualitative - categorical, descriptive

2. quantitative - numerical value

levels of measurement

1. nominal (quali) - numbers to represent a category; given equal importance

2. ordinal (quali) - arranged according to magnitude
3. interval (quanti) - has no true zero; subtraction and addition can be used; has
a fixed unit of measurment
4. ration (quanti) - has an absolute zero; all operations can be applied

PARAMETER vs STATISTIC

1. Parameter (Population) - measure describing a population; value from the

population
2. Statistic (Sample) measure describing the sample; value from the sample.
Major Areas:
1. Descriptive - describes the data
2. Inferential - makes analysis; generalizes the whole population

Research Process - set of activities to answer questions and test theories

Empirical Research - verified by direct experience

Statistical Inquiry - provides information but information =/ data

steps in the research process

1. identify problem
2. plan the study
3. collect data
4. explore data
5. analyze and interpret
6. present

methods of collecting data

1. observation - watching/recording of behavior; no intervention invisible ka lang
beh
2. experimentation - with direct human intervention in the conditions
3. registration - use of vital stats
4. survey - obtained from individuals
5. use of documented data - from previous works and studies

types of data collected

1. primary - direct from the source

2. secondary - indirectly from the source

types personal of interviews

- may visual verification
1. PAPI pen and paper interview
2. CAPI computer assisted personal interview

telephone interview
- no visual verification
- respondent can end it
- problematic ang results due to non-response rates
- less cost; fixed rates

self administerred questionnaires

- high non-response rate
- fill up w/o any assistance from interviewer

online surveys
- via internet
- low cost, wider reach
- high non-response rate??
- coverage error

FGDs
- freewheeling discussion

CHAPTER B

census vs sample survey

- census - needs whole population

- sample survey - subset of population

sampling - done to get an estimate of unknown parameters; does not need full
census; test a claim.

errors in survey work

1. Sampling error - not all units are observed; higher sample, lower error;
solution: determine right sample size
2. Non-sampling error - unrelated to sampling; coverage, bias, non-
response,interviewer error, response error, coding error, etc. solution: plan it
well!

total survey error = SE + NSE

SURVEY DESIGN
Target Population and Survey Population are ideally the same
Target P. - where info is ideally desired to get
Survey P. - where info is taken

Sampling Frame - list of target p.

sampling unit - sample from the list of registered voters; part of sampling process
observation unit - registered voters; where measurment is taken

Types of Sampling Method

1. Probability (inferential) - every element of a P is given equal chance of being
selected; random, no bias
a. Simple Random Sampling - each element has an equal chance of being
selected, random
SRSWR
SRSWoR
b. Stratified (N population, n sample size, L strata, Ni population per
stratum)- grouped into homogenous groups then taken equal amount of elements from
each group
Equal distribution - ni = n/L
Proportional - ni = (Ni/N) x n (round up)
c. Systematic - may sampling interval (k)
k = N/n
d. Cluster - heterogenous groups; that group can tehn be selected as sample
e. sampling w/ probability proportional to size
2. Non-probability sampling (descriptive) - not all elements are gicen equal
chances of being selected; cannot assert that sample is representative of P.
a. Purposive - may criteria for the respondents
b. Convenience - kahit sino nalang basta madaling hagilapin
c. Quota - may quota sa samples na kailangang i-reach
d. Snowball - referrals from samples

Survey instrument

types of qs
1. open-ended
2. closed- ended
3. semi-open

pitfalls w/ questions:
- complex terms
- abbreviations
- undefined terms
- double barreled
- double negatives
- not specific
- leading
- loaded
- prestige markers
- emotional language
- sensitive qs

reliability vs validity: r=/ v

reliability - internal consistency

cronbach's alpha - measure reliability; higher (.80 - 1) reliable and
internally consistent; lower (.60 and below) one of the items s
a = n/n-1(1-summation of Vi/Vtest)
n = no. of itmes
 Vi = variance of scores on ith item
Vtest = total variance

validity - does the questionnaire measure what it needs to?

phases of interview

preparation
- role of enumerator
- training the enumerator
- enumerator's kit

the interview
- opening remarks
- gaining entry
- introduction
- explain study
- ask qs
- probes
1. silent probe
2. echo probe
3. recapitualtion
4. overt encouragement
5. non-verbal
6. repeat
7. specification
- recording responses

data processing

- data editing:process of inspecting raw data from questionnaire

- data coding: converting answers into numerical form/codes

TYPES OF CODES

1. listing codes - list of choices, codes begin w successive integers 0 or 1

2. bracket codes - ranges or class intervals
3. scale codes - likert sclaing
4. series codes
- multi-digit: leading code (major category); secondary or following codes
(specific)
5. multiple dichotomy method - 0 if yes, 1 if no
6. coding combination - listing all possible combis and then giving them codes

coding no response

- N/A: 7/77/777 so on
- Don't know: 8/88/888
- refuse to answer: 9/99/999