Differential Calculus

Discipline Course-I
Semester -I
Paper: Mathematical PhysicsI IA
Lesson: Differential Calculus
Lesson Developer: Sushil Kumar Singh
College/Department: SGTB Khalsa College, University of Delhi

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 Differential Calculus

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Differential Calculus

 Introduction
 1.1 Limits
 1.1.1 Left Limit
 1.1.2 Right Limit
 1.1.3 Some Theorems
 1.2 Continuity
 1.2.1 Left Continuity
 1.2.2 Right Continuity
 1.3 Differentiability
 1.3.1 Left Differentiability
 1.3.2 Right Differentiability
 1.4 Average and Instantaneous Quantities
 1.4.1 Average Quantity
 1.4.2 Instantaneous Quantity
 1.4.3 The Theorem of Mean Value
 1.5 Taylor and Binomial Series
 1.5.1 Taylor’s Theorem of the Mean
 1.5.2 The Binomial Series

 Summary
 Exercise/ Practice
 Glossary
 References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter the student will be able to learn

how to find the Limiting value of a function?

what we mean by Continuity of a function?
when is a function Differentiable?
limits, continuity and differentiation are used in many fields of physics.
Students will find direct application in Newtonian Mechanics,
thermodynamics and many other fields.
how to calculate the Average rate of change and the Instantaneous rate
of change of a function? We need while reading physics the average and
instantaneous values. So knowledge developed on these topics is
important here.
the Theorem of Mean Value & Taylor’s Theorem of the Mean; here the
student will be able to write a function with respect to any reference
point and express it in the form of power series.

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 Differential Calculus

Differential Calculus

You may have studied differential calculus in your school. However, we here go through
the basics of differential calculus in order to be able to understand the differential
equations.

3.1 Limits

Let be a point on the real line and be a real number. The -neighbourhood of the
point , denoted by 𝑁( is defined as the interval

| |

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to have a limit if for any pre-
assigned arbitrary positive number , no matter however small, there corresponds a
positive number such that | ( | whenever | | but . In a compact
form it is written as

The meaning is that for every neighbourhood ( of , there exists a

neighbourhood ( excluding the point itself such that ( is in ( for
every in ( excluding itself.

This definition does not require the behaviour of ( at .

Geometrically, this means that for every in the two open intervals and
, the graph of a function ( can always be confined to lie between the
horizontal lines 𝑦 and 𝑦 . The following figures presents two cases wherein
limits are checked for a) and b)

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3.1.1 Left Limit

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to have a limit if for any pre-
assigned arbitrary positive number , no matter however small, there corresponds a
positive number such that | ( | whenever but . In a compact
form it is written as

where represents the fact that is approaching the value from the left of the
number line.

Geometrically, this means that for every in the two open intervals the
graph of a function ( can always be confined to lie between the horizontal lines
𝑦 and 𝑦 .

3.1.2 Right Limit

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to have a limit if for any pre-
assigned arbitrary positive number , no matter however small, there corresponds a
positive number such that | ( | whenever but . In a compact
form it is written as

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 Differential Calculus

where represents the fact that is approaching the value from the right of the
number line.

Geometrically, this means that for every in the two open intervals the
graph of a function ( can always be confined to lie between the horizontal lines
𝑦 and 𝑦 .

The limit of a real valued function ( of a real variable

exits if and only if

a) the left limit ( and ( right limit exists
b) and
where we denote .

3.1.3 Some Theorems

If ( and (

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Theorem 1.1.3.1
{ ( ( } ( (

Theorem 1.1.3.2
{ ( ( } ( (

Theorem 1.1.3.3
{ ( ( } { ( }{ ( }

Theorem 1.1.3.4
( (
{ }
( (

Example 1.1.1 Show that the limit

{ }

Solution: For the limit to be correct, given the confinement value for the function
( we should be able to find out some region about the limit point

| |

for
| |

Now
( (
| | | | |( | | |

which means given

| |

Obviously if we chose then can satisfy

| |

Therefore, we find | | for | | and so the limit { } .

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 Differential Calculus

Example 1.1.2 Evaluate the limit

{ }

Solution: Know that

( (
(

we get

{ } (

Intuitively the limit value must be , so we test for it. For the limit to be correct, given
the confinement value for the function ( we should be able to find out
some region about the limit point

|( |

for
| |

which is obvious as the two inequalities looks the same provided .

Example 1.1.3 Show that the limit

| |
{ }

does not exist.

Solution: Let’s look at the limit of the function left of i.e. and for which
| |

| |
{ } { } { }

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 Differential Calculus

Now let’s look at the limit of the function right of i.e. and for which | |

| |
{ } { } { }

Although the left and right limit exists but they are not equal therefore the limit
| |
{ } do not exist .

3.2 Continuity

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be continuous at if the

following conditions are fulfilled
a) the limit ( exists
b) the function is defined and single valued in the neighbourhood of & at
and ( exits
c) and finally (

If the function ( fails to be continuous at some point then that point is known as
the point of discontinuity and the function is said to be discontinuous at that point.

3.2.1 Left Continuity

A real valued function ( of a real variable defined only for is said to continuous
on the left at if

( (

3.2.2 Right Continuity

A real valued function ( of a real variable defined only for is said to continuous
on the right at if

( (

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It seems obvious that if a function ƒ(x) is continuous both from the left and from the
right at a point then it is continuous at .

Example 1.2.1 Show that the function

𝟏
𝒇( { 𝐬 𝐧( ) ;
;
is continuous at .

Solution: First we consider the difference

| ( ( | | s n( ) | | | |s n ( )| | |

since the s n function is always less than or equal to . If we impose the condition that
for some arbitrarily small we have | ( ( | then | | and we find

| |
| | √

This means that there always exist a positive √ for the given such that | (
( | and | | . Thus the given function is continuous .

Example 1.2.2 Show that the function

𝟑
∀ 𝟏
𝒇( { ∀𝟏
∀ 𝟑

is continuous at 𝟏 and discontinuous at .

Solution: First we consider the left limit at the point

3
(

and the right limit at the point

Since the two limit exist and have the same value the function ( is continuous at
.
Now we consider the left limit at the point

and the right limit at the point

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Though the two limit exist but they do not have the same value, the function ( is dis-
continuous at .

3.3 Differentiability

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be differentiable at if the

limit

( (

exits and this limiting value is denoted as ( . Thus, the derivative of the function (
of a real variable at can be represented as (by writing )

( (
(

We find that to be differentiable the function ( must be continuous at .

If the function ( fails to be differentiable at some point then the function is said
to be non-differentiable at that point.

3.3.1 Left Differentiability

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be left differentiable at if

( (
(

3.3.2 Right Differentiability

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 Differential Calculus

A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be right differentiable at if

( (
(

It seems obvious that if a function ƒ(x) is differentiable both from the left and from the
right at a point then it is differentiable at .

Example 1.3.1 Show that the function

𝒇( 𝒆

is differentiable everywhere.

Solution: First we look for left differentiability at an arbitrary point

( (
(

( ⋯)
!
(

⋯ ( ⋯)
( ! !

( ( ⋯)
!

The ( ⋯ ) is independent of the sign of and the limiting value is . Thus,

!

Then we look for right differentiability at

( (
(

( ⋯)
!
(

⋯ ( ⋯)
( ! !

( ( ⋯)
!

Again ( ⋯ ) is independent of the sign of and the limiting value is . Thus,

!

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 Differential Calculus

If the function were to be differentiable then

( (

which is true.

Example 1.3.2 Show that the function

𝒎
𝟏
𝒇( { 𝐬 𝐧( ) ∀
∀

is differentiable if 𝒎 𝟏.

Solution: First we look for left differentiability at

( (
(

𝑚
s n( )
( 𝑚
{ s n ( )}

where means . To make a positive number, we can rewrite it as

( 𝑚
{( s n( )}
(
( 𝑚 𝑚
{( ( s n ( )}

( ( 𝑚 𝑚
{ s n ( )}

where now .
Then we look for right differentiability at

( (
(

𝑚
s n( )
( 𝑚
{ s n ( )}

where means .

If the function were to be differentiable then

( (
( 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
{ s n ( )} { s n ( )}

The existence of the limits requires that 𝒎 𝟏 (otherwise ( & ( would blow
up) and the equality requires that 𝒎 is even.

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 Differential Calculus

Example 1.3.3 Show that the function

𝒇( 𝒆

is differentiable at .

Solution: First we look for left differentiability at an arbitrary point

( (
(

( ⋯)
!
(

⋯ ( ⋯)
( ! !

( ( ⋯)
!

The ( ⋯ ) is independent of the sign of and the limiting value is . Thus,

!

Then we look for right differentiability at

( (
(

( ⋯)
!
(

⋯ ( ⋯)
( ! !

( ( ⋯)
!

Again ( ⋯ ) is independent of the sign of and the limiting value is . Thus,

!

If the function were to be differentiable then

( (

which is true.

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 Differential Calculus

3.4 Average and Instantaneous Quantities

A real valued function ( of a real variable can be plotted in the 𝑦 coordinate with
( on the 𝑦 –axis as shown. If the variable represents time then from the graph we
can look for region where the function changes faster and also for the region where the
change is slower.

There are two quantities of special interest when we consider such rate of change

3.4.1 Average Quantity

A real valued function ( of a real variable , the average rate of change of the function
in the interval is defined as

( (

Although the average rate tells the general trend but it can be misleading as in the
present case the curve between includes region of rise as well as fall but the
rate show only an increase.

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 Differential Calculus

3.4.2 Instantaneous Quantity

For a real valued function ( of a real variable , the instantaneous rate of change of
the function at a point is defined as

( (
(

The red line tells the exact trend at the point but then it doesn’t tell the general
trend.

Example 1.4.1 Find the mean and the instantaneous value for the function
variables

𝒇(

Solution: The mean value between the interval will be

( (

( (

The instantaneous value at would be

( (
(
(
(

(
(

It is to be noted that the instantaneous value at would be

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 Differential Calculus

( ) ( )

which is the same as the mean value in the interval .

3.4.3 The Theorem of Mean Value

If ( is continuous in the interval [ and differentiable in ( then there exists a

point in ( such that

( (
(

The instantaneous rate of change (derivative) of the function ( at is equal to the

mean rate of change of the function ( in the interval [ .

Rolle’s Theorem is the special case of the Mean Value Theorem, according to which if
( is continuous in the interval [ and differentiable in ( and if ( (
then there exists a point in ( such that

3.5 Taylor and Binomial Series

3.5.1 Taylor’s Theorem of the Mean

(
If the derivative of ( i.e., ( is continuous in the interval [ and
differentiable in ( then at ∈ (

(
( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ⋯
! !

( ( (
where (
is known as the remainder for some in ( . This becomes a
!
Taylor series about the point .

Taylor’s series is an extension of this theorem when ∞ , under such

circumstance

( ( ( ( 3
( ( ( ( ⋯
! !

Some examples of Taylor’s series are

3
⋯ ⋯
! ! !
3
sn ⋯ ( ⋯
! ! ( !

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 Differential Calculus

s ⋯ ( ⋯
! ! ( !
3
( ⋯ ( ⋯

3.5.2 The Binomial Series

If | | and is any real number, then

∞
𝑚
( ∑( )

𝑚!
where the Binomial Coefficients (𝑚) (𝑚 ! !

Example 1.5.1 Expand the function in power series

𝟏
𝒇(
√𝟏

Solution: The Binomial expansion would be for the function

( (
√

which means . The coefficients would then be ( for )

( )!
( )
( )! !

( )( )( ) ( )
( )
!
(
( )( )( ) ( )
( )
!
(
( )( )( ) ( )
( ) (
!

(
( ) (
!

( )!
For we find that ( )
( )! !
3
So the first few coefficients are and hence

( ⋯
√

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Summary
Limits
- In a compact form it is written as

(
- It means that for every neighbourhood ( of , there exists a
neighbourhood ( excluding the point itself such that ( is in
( for every in ( excluding itself.
- The limit of a real valued function ( of a real variable

exists iff
c) the left limit ( and ( right limit exists
d) and
where we denote .

Continuity
- A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be continuous at if
the following conditions are fulfilled
d) the limit ( exists
e) the function is defined and single valued in the neighbourhood of & at
and ( exists
f) and finally (
- If the function ( fails to be continuous at some point then that point is
known as the point of discontinuity and the function is said to be discontinuous at
that point.
- It seems obvious that if a function ƒ(x) is continuous both from the left and from
the right at a point then it is continuous at .

Differentiability
- A real valued function ( of a real variable is said to be differentiable at
if the limit

( (

exists and this limiting value is denoted as ( .

- We find that to be differentiable at the point the function ( must be
continuous at .
- If the function ( fails to be differentiable at some point then the function
is said to be non-differentiable at that point.
- It seems obvious that if a function ƒ(x) is differentiable both from the left and
from the right at a point then it is differentiable at .

Average Quantity
- A real valued function ( of a real variable , the average rate of change of the

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function in the interval is defined as

( (

Instantaneous Quantity
- For a real valued function ( of a real variable , the instantaneous rate of
change of the function at a point is defined as

( (
(

The Theorem of Mean Value

- If ( is continuous in the interval [ and differentiable in ( then there
exists a point in ( such that

( (
(

- The instantaneous rate of change (derivative) of the function ( at is equal to

the mean rate of change of the function ( in the interval [ .
- Rolle’s Theorem is the special case of the Mean Value Theorem, according to
which if ( is continuous in the interval [ and differentiable in ( and if
( ( then there exists a point in ( such that

Taylor’s Theorem of the Mean

(
- If the derivative of ( i.e., ( is continuous in the interval [ and
differentiable in ( then at ∈ (

(
( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ⋯
! !

( ( (
where (
is known as the remainder for some in ( . This
!
becomes a Taylor series about the point .
- Taylor’s series is an extension of this theorem when ∞ , under such
circumstance

( ( ( ( 3
( ( ( ( ⋯
! !

Bibliography/ References / Glossary

1. Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin Kreysig
2. Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Michael D. Greenberg
3. Schaum's Outline: Theory and Problems of Advanced Calculus by Murray R. Spiegel
4. Mathematical Methods in Physical Sciences by Mary L. Boas
5. Calculus & Analytic Geometry by Fobes & Smyth

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6. Essential Mathematical Methods by K.F. Riley & M.P. Hobson

7. Schaum's Outline: Theory and Problems of Differential Equations by Richard Bronson
8. Schaum's Outline: Theory and Problems of Differential Equations by Frank Ayres
9. Introductory Course in Differential Equations by Daniel A. Murray
10. Differential Equations by N.M. Kapoor
11. Higher Engineering Mathematics by B S Grewal
12. A Treatise on Differential Equations by A. R. Forsyth

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