Unit 1

Disaster and Disaster Risk

Lesson 1
The Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk

Concept of Disaster
Disaster is a dangerous situation or threat from natural or man-made events that disrupt
the functions of individuals in a community. This could mean death, damage to resources,
and loss of property. Thus, a community under disaster might need assistance to recover.
Disasters occur when a hazard is exposed to a vulnerable community.

A hazard is a threat to life, environment, or property. A hazard can be considered a

disaster if it poses an actual harm to life and environment. It can be classified based on
its origins: natural and man-made.

Natural hazards are caused by an abrupt or slow onset of naturally occurring phenomena
which can be biological, geological, hydrological, meteorological, and climatological in origin.

Table 1. Type of Natural Hazards.

Natural Hazard Description

biological diseases, epidemics, plagues

geological earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, and volcanic activity

hydrological avalanche, floods

meteorological storm surges, cyclones, tornadoes

climatological drought, wildfires

Natural Hazards
● plague
● volcanic
● eruption
● cyclone
● drought
Man-made hazards are caused by human activities and occur near human settlements.
Pollution, industrial, and transport accidents, conflicts (war and terrorism), and
technological structures are some examples of man-made hazards.
● pollution
● accident
● arson
● war
The failure to withstand the impacts of hazards is called vulnerability. For example, a town
located near an active volcano is more vulnerable to a volcanic eruption compared to a town
located far from the volcano.

The impacts of a disaster can be reduced if proper mitigation measures are done.
Mitigation refers to the act of preventing or minimizing the effects of a disaster by
introducing precautionary measures before it strikes a community.

Nature of Disasters
How are disasters formed? We can recall that disaster occurrence is a combination of
hazards and vulnerability. A vulnerable community exposed to a hazard is prone to disaster
risks. Vulnerability is often caused by limited resources, illnesses within the population,
and disabilities within a community. Failure to plan proper disaster management procedures
also contribute to disaster formation.

Natural Disasters
Some natural disasters are unpredictable, but communities can prepare for their
occurrence
to avoid heavy damages. For example, the earthquake on the West Valley Fault lining the
National Capital Region and nearby areas is unpredictable. However, the government and
nearby communities can take precautionary measures to reduce the potential negative
impacts of the earthquake. The different communities around the area continue to
conduct earthquake drills to prepare for the upcoming disaster.

On the other hand, natural disasters like typhoons occur with warning. PAGASA (Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services) and the media provide information
about the typhoon’s speed and location so that citizens could take precautionary measures
and evacuation procedures before the typhoon strikes.

Man-made Disasters
Man-made disasters are caused by human activities and usually occur in human
settlements. Like natural disasters, man-made disasters can happen with or without
warning. Flood caused by an unknown leak or breakage in a water dam, without proper
mitigation is an example of unpredicted disaster.

Some of the most severe man-made disasters strike without warning. An example is the
war at Marawi that caused the death of hundreds of civilians and soldiers, damage to
properties, and the spread of diseases.

Table. 2. Examples of Natural and Man-made Disasters

Natural Disasters Man-made Disasters

wind related (typhoons) war

water related (flash flood) arson

 Earth related (landslides) industrial explosions

space related (asteroid collisions) wildlife extinction

Lesson 2
Risk Factors Underlying Disasters

Concept of Disaster Risk

Disaster risk is defined by United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR) as “the combination of the probability of an event and its negative
consequences.” This includes severity of hazard, number of damage to people and
resources, and their vulnerability to damage.
● Hazard – any phenomenon that can potentially cause damage to life, property, or
environment.
● Exposure – any element (people, property, or system) that is present in a hazard and is
prone to potential loss.
● Vulnerability - feature of a community that makes them prone and exposed to the
negative impacts of hazard.
To understand disaster risks, one must also consider the community’s capacity to protect
itself against disasters. The ability of a community to withstand, accommodate, and
recover from a disaster is called resilience.

According to UNISDR, 1.6 billion people have been killed in disasters worldwide since 1980.
It is also estimated that global average annual loss will increase up to US$415 billion by
2030. Disaster risk is measured and assessed to reduce the number of deaths and
resources lost as mentioned in the example.

Analyzing disaster loss from previous years are employed to plan mitigation procedures to
prevent and estimate future disaster losses. Information gathered from hazards,
exposures, vulnerabilities, and damages will give an accurate risk assessment. A risk
assessment is made to estimate the potential economic, infrastructure, and social impacts.

Disaster Risk Factors

There are several factors that affect the degree of disaster risk in a community. These
factors can intensify or lessen the effects of disaster. These factors can be classified
into physical, psychological, socio-cultural, economic, and biological aspects.
● Physical – This includes the concrete objects in a community that can help or
harm an individual during a disaster. Examples are availability of fire exits during a
fire, sturdiness of infrastructure or the ability of a building to withstand
earthquakes.
● Psychological – It includes the mental state of an individual, like the ability of an
individual to respond to a disaster and fear.
● Socio-cultural – This includes traditions, religion, and social statuses in society.
Examples include community folklore, presence of bayanihan system, etc.
● Economic – This includes resources in the community and the income source of
individuals such as farming and employment.
 ● Biological – This includes the flora and fauna in the environment, their health, and
its diseases.

Disaster Risk Reduction

Disaster risk reduction aims to decrease the risk level in communities. It implements
policies and measures to control potential risks like poor urban and rural planning, poverty,
and poor government and local capacities. Disaster risk reduction is implemented in order
to:
● reduce vulnerability to life, property, or environment to an existing hazard;
● reduce degree of exposure to hazards; and
● increase preparedness through proper mitigation procedures.

Lesson 3
Effects Of Disasters

Devastations caused by disasters do not just cause death and damage to property. There
are other several physical, medical, and psychological aspects in a community affected by
calamities. The severity of effects in these aspects are due to several factors.

Population
Increased population in evacuation centers is the most immediate effect during a disaster.
Natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons force people to vacate their homes
and seek shelter to a nearby safe area. In the Philippines, the common evacuation areas
are schools and churches.

Health
One consequence of disaster is threat to the population’s health. Severe flooding caused
by typhoons can increase the presence of stagnant water in the area. This stagnant water
is a perfect breeding ground for mosquitoes to lay their eggs and for the growth of
bacteria. A common disease during a typhoon is leptospirosis, a bacterial disease that
affects humans. An increase in the number of dead and sick people can continue if medical
assistance is not immediately given. The people staying in an evacuation center has a high
chance of acquiring an epidemic or disease outbreak because of close contact to sick
people. Poor personal hygiene and lack of clean and available comfort room also adds to the
problem.

Food
Food becomes limited after an occurrence of disaster. Source of food from farms,
poultry, and aquaculture become damaged after a disaster, thus the supply of food
becomes limited. Typhoons and drought cause damage in crops of farms and gardens. As a
result, the price of food becomes higher and people’s ability to buy supplies is reduced.
This can lead to malnutrition and hunger, brought upon by these disasters. This can hamper
the development of children in the long run.

Psychological
The devastating impacts of disaster can be traumatic for any person who has experienced
it. Exposure to deaths and catastrophe can be unforgettable to anyone especially to
children. Many children could develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after
experiencing such disastrous events. PTSD is a serious psychological condition from
extreme trauma. Inability to notice and address it early, can lead to a lifetime of
emotional distress and psychological damage.
Factors Affecting Severity of Effects
Severity of Exposure
A person exposed to a more severe disaster has higher risk for mental distress. For
example, a family who experienced a first-hand fire incident has a higher risk than their
friends and other people who have watched the news about the fire. Psychological
problems after disasters are usually triggered by exposure to the death of an immediate
family member.

Age
Research shows that individuals ranging from 40-60 years old are more prone to disaster
distress than children. Adults have more pressures like their jobs and families, and these
adds up to their emotional distress after a disaster. The higher stress of parents is
related to their children’s slow recovery.

Human Resilience
Humans are naturally resilient. Resilience is the ability of individuals to recover from the
impacts of a disaster. There are several factors that increase the resilience of an
individual:
1. Social support includes emotional support by sharing traumatic experiences,
coping mechanisms, and finding a sense of comfort from others.
2. Coping confidence is the self-efficiency to believe that one can survive any
disaster and reduce mental distress in the future. This method of coping includes
values like optimism, hope, and confidence.

Lesson 4
How and When an Event Becomes a Disaster

To understand how and when an event becomes a disaster, one must know the difference
between a hazard and a disaster. It was discussed in Lesson 1 that disaster is defined as a
sudden, calamitous event that can cause damage to property and death. On the other hand,
hazard is a natural or man-made event that can potentially harm a population. Hazard can
be considered a disaster when there are already negative impacts to human life and their
properties. For example, a tsunami that hits a deserted island cannot be considered a
disaster since there are no human inhabitants in the island.

Hazards are a risk factor in the occurrence of disasters. Thus, a disaster can be
prevented if the risk brought by a hazard can be prevented or reduced. For instance, a
typhoon is a natural hazard that can be predicted using weather satellites. Its impacts can
be reduced if proper mitigation procedures are done such as information dissemination and
evacuation before the typhoon strikes in a community. This is called a proactive approach
to emergency preparedness.

What will happen if no measures are made to prepare for a disaster? Or if the disaster is
unforeseen? For example, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake that hit Central Visayas in 2013
killed 222 people, resulted to 350 000 displaced victims, and destroyed 73 000 buildings.
Earthquakes are unforeseen natural hazards due to the movement of plates in the earth’s
crust.

Response during the occurrence of a disaster is important to lessen damages. If a hazard

is predicted in an area, agencies should warn the citizens in the area. It can be in the form
of news announcements done in various media sites and community evacuations. During the
actual disaster, emergency response teams should be fast in recovering individuals trapped
in unfortunate situations to reduce the number of casualties.

Always remember that a hazard only becomes a disaster when it impacts human life and
damages properties. The greater the number of people in a risky area, the greater chance
it will become a catastrophe. Identifying communities or populations who have a higher risk
during disasters can help protect more lives.

Lesson 5
Areas or Location Exposed to Hazards

The Philippines is geographically located at the “Pacific Ring of Fire”. These are countries
that are usually hit by disasters like earthquake. According to the Center for Research on
the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), the worst combination of disasters experienced by
the Philippines was from 1901 to 2000. The occurrence and effects of disasters are
inevitable but reducing the severity can be done by proper mitigation procedures.

One way to reduce disaster impact is to identify the areas exposed or prone to hazards.
This information is helpful in planning for disaster risk reduction and management.
Identifying hazards can be categorized per type of hazard. This lesson focuses on
identifying different areas exposed to natural hazards.

Prediction and Warning

Prediction is a statement of probability of hazards to occur based on a number of
evidences or observations. These observations can come from precursor events or unusual
physical changes.

For example, volcanic eruptions are usually preceded by a series of earthquakes and
changes in the chemical composition of the gases coming from the volcanic vent.
Monitoring these activities can predict potential volcanic eruptions.

A warning is a signal that tells of a high probability of occurrence of a hazard. When a

warning is issued, the community should be alert on the dangers of the potential event and
proper measures should be made.

Climate and Weather Related Hazards

Areas with low elevation is more prone to impacts of typhoons and floods. Also, areas with
poor drainage systems, located near bodies of water can be prone to floods as well. Steep
landforms with poor vegetation are prone to landslides during typhoons.
Geophysical Related Hazards
Earthquakes are more prominent in areas near fault lines. We can recall the tectonic plates
in the earth’s crust and identify which are the fault lines. Areas that are deep-focused,
are prone to earthquakes because of its trench and nearby active faults.

Man-made Related Hazards

Fire hazards can be caused by faulty electrical wiring, children playing with matches,
candles left unattended, burning garbage, leaking LPG tanks, and using firewood in cooking.
War is considered the worst man-made disaster. In the Philippines, the war in Marawi last
May of 2017 caused a huge disaster not only to the city’s infrastructure but to the lives of
the people living there.

Lesson 6
Disaster from Different Perspective

Physical and Environmental Aspect

When a disaster hits, the first line of impact is the environment. Disaster causes drastic
changes in the structure of the environment. For example, when an earthquake occurs in an
area, there is a high possibility that roads will break and crack. Landslides in the mountains
causes erosion of the soil. This will lead to the removal of an arable layer of soil. Arable
soil is needed to plant more trees to prevent landslides in the future. Droughts can cause
soil cracking in farms as well because of the absence of water moisture. Because of this,
farmers cannot provide enough supply of crops because the land is not suitable for crop
growth.

Socio-economic Aspect
Impacts of disaster in the socio-economic aspect include the state of the social well-being
and the financial resources of the community. Government agencies are responsible for
reducing the socio-economic impacts of the community through proper mitigation
procedures.

Recent studies revealed that developing countries like the Philippines are more vulnerable
to socio-economic impacts. One reason is that developing countries are more prone to
disaster impact because of its high vulnerability and low resistance. The low economic
status of developing countries contribute to their high vulnerability and mitigation
procedures has to involve proper budget allocation.

Urban areas with more stable infrastructure are less vulnerable than areas with poor
infrastructure. Proper information dissemination and education about disasters are lacking
in some rural areas. Because of this, they fail to implement a proper disaster risk
reduction plan in their area which would lead to higher risk and vulnerability to a disaster
impact.

Educational Aspect
Access to information is important in reducing the hazardous effects of disasters.
Observation and data analysis is not just essential for identifying risk in disasters but also
to educate and train people on how to reduce disaster risk. Students in elementary and
high school are greater in population. This large percentage in a community is crucial in
literacy when it comes to disaster management. For example, students in Senior High
School are taking up the subject Disaster Readiness and Risk reduction as part of the new
curriculum for the K to 12 program. However, when disaster strikes, schools used as
evacuation centers, hinder the education of the students.

Psychological Aspect
A natural or man-made disaster is a traumatic event that can cause stress, depression, and
anxiety. People with underlying mental illnesses is considered a vulnerable group. Shock and
denial stages after disastrous events are normal for victims that is why they need
psycho-social intervention to be able to cope and live a normal life.
Biological Aspect
Disasters can cause health problems to individuals. In a larger scale, these diseases can
cause an epidemic or an outbreak especially if emergency care is not available.

In terms of biological diversity, animals, and plants that live in a community where disaster
strikes can drastically decrease in number. This would result to imbalance in the ecosystem
and potentially limited access to food resources, agriculture, and livestock.

Political Aspect
A disaster may also change the way citizens feel about other people in general, like after
giving donations to assist affected individuals. A disaster may also affect public opinion
about the government, because citizens can feel and see how the government handled the
effects of disaster. In that respect, potential social and political effects of disasters
occur through direct and indirect experiences.

In the Philippines, a disaster have brought donations from local and international agencies.
Survivors and their families expected to rebuild their properties from those donations but
government rebuilding efforts seem too slow. This scenario made a huge political impact to
the country regarding the trust rating of government officials.

Unit 2
Lesson 1
Vulnerability

Vulnerability
The UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) (formerly United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction or UNISDR) which was established in 1999
has the mandate to be the main coordinator of the United Nations system on its disaster
reduction activities. The UNDRR is one of the leading authorities in disaster risk reduction
and management (DRRM). UNIDRR also released a list of terminologies related to DRRM
and updates it from time to time. UNDRR in its 2014 list of terminologies defines
vulnerability as a set of “characteristics and circumstances, system, or assets that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of hazards.”
Vulnerability is one of the determinants of the effects and impacts of hazards. If the
experiences of a certain community to typhoons have a long history of disasters and failed
response, it could learn from it and change its ways of life. Vulnerability affects how
people live, their resources, and their capacity to address hazards.

Vulnerability can also be defined as lack of power to be safe in times of disasters.

Disasters might affect the whole country or community, but its effects and impacts vary.
These variations or levels of vulnerability depend on wealth, education, gender, age, and
other cultural and social conditions.

Factors Affecting Vulnerability

There are three (3) main factors that affect the level or degree of vulnerability of
communities:

Factor Characteristics

Physical ● Location (e.g. nearness to bodies of water, volcano, and other

landslide-prone areas)
● Environment (e.g. tall and old trees, stray dogs and cats, wild animals,
and dengue-affected area)
● Structural (e.g. no perimeter fence, improper electrical wiring
installation, non-compliant with building code, fire exits are too narrow,
slippery hallways, broken window glasses)

Social ● absence or lack of implementation of DRRM committee

● lacking or unknown contingency plan
● unclear protocols
● no organized evacuation drills
● no early warning system
● uncooperative neighborhood
● local community leaders are not trained in DRRM
● absence or lack of DRRM related facilities and equipment such as
fire extinguishers, first aid kits, ambulance, and others

Motivational ● No coordination between local leaders and community people.

● Funds for DRRM were diverted to other programs and initiatives.
● Local leaders are unwilling to integrate DRRM into their programs
and initiatives.
● Internal conflicts and divisions exist between local community
leaders.
● A community is unaware of risks and their possible consequences.
Categories of Vulnerability
The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center has categorized vulnerability into two,
hazard-specific and setting specific.

Hazard – specific Setting – specific

A characteristic which makes the element A place or an area becomes susceptible to

concerned susceptible to the forces or
impacts of a hazard. The geophysical and
locational attributes of the elements given
are considered in this category. Based on
the present-knowledge of the distribution
hazards according to their location or
setting. The main concern is whether it is
located in a rural or urban setting. Some
characteristics may be present to both as
well as exclusive to a specific area that
 and frequency of hazards, a community or makes it more prone to the effects of a
country may be threatened by specific disaster.
hazards.
Examples:
Examples: ● Baseco compound is a congested area
● Catanduanes is vulnerable to typhoons. with many makeshift houses. Due to its
● Surigao is vulnerable to tsunami and location and the economic status of people
storm surge. living there, it is vulnerable to different
● Central Luzon is vulnerable to an eruption hazards.
of Mt. Pinatubo. ● Metro cities of Cebu and Manila due to
● Metro Manila is vulnerable to 7.2 its congested areas and high population are
magnitude earthquake called “Big One.” vulnerable to fire and earthquake.
● Residential settlements along bodies of
water (rivers, coastal area, and delta) are
vulnerable to flood and effects of climate
change.

Types of Vulnerability
A. Physical vulnerability pertains to potential damages a hazard can do to physical
structures including buildings, houses, and transportation systems (roads, railways,
airports, and seaports). It can also affect lifelines or critical facilities that are needed to
sustain the life of a community, like power and water supplies, and telecommunications
facilities. The physical environment can also be considered— devastated agricultural lands
will affect food supply and contribute more to vulnerabilities of the already vulnerable
sectors of society.
B. Social vulnerability is defined as “the people’s capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist
and recover from impacts of natural hazards” (Wisher, et al. 2004). There are many
factors affecting the social vulnerability of a certain community or group such as economic
status,
ethnicity, gender, age, religion, and disability. Powerful people might not be vulnerable to
hazards because they are equipped and prepared, while the poor are more vulnerable
because of their living conditions, the environment they live in, and their access to certain
services of the government. This is where marginalization takes place, when a certain
sector of society is excluded from getting the basic social services in times of disasters.

Remember!
Presence of both physical and social vulnerabilities can increase the effect of the disaster
on a community.

Lesson 2
Vulnerability of sectors of society to disasters

Socio-Economic Factors
Socio-economic status or wealth plays a vital role on why some sectors of society are more
vulnerable than others. Rich or developed countries do not suffer as much relative to
developing nations when a natural hazard occurs. Disasters might affect the supply of food
and other essential commodities and services of a country.
The same is true to families whose houses are not compliant to the National Building Code
of the Philippines (materials, structure, ventilation, sanitation, and others). When a strong
earthquake hits their location, their houses are more likely to be affected or destroyed.
While families that reside in a structurally sound concrete homes or high-rise
condominium, have lesser vulnerability during earthquakes, fires, or typhoon.
There are also families that have the budget to buy first aid kits and stock necessary
supplies (food and clothing) that they might need during and after a disaster, while the
others cannot even purchase food thrice a day because of their everyday financial
struggle.

Government and other non-governmental civic organizations education programs and

activities lessen the impacts or effects of disasters. The quarterly National Simultaneous
Earthquake Drill (NSED) of the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) together with other
government agencies and local government units like the Bureau of Fire Protection,
Municipal/City/Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office, and other
relevant agencies help improve the level of awareness and preparedness of communities
when disaster happens.

Government agencies also have the primary task of ensuring a safe and resilient
environment and community. They are responsible for planning and creating measures to
lessen the impact of disasters on the cities.

The movement of people from one place to another is called migration. This shift can be
due to different factors, and displacement also affects the level of vulnerability of people.

Migrants, refugees, and internally-displaced persons (IDP) do not receive the same
response and relief from the government. Typically these types of people suffer most
when disaster strikes because of their unfamiliarity with their current place of
settlement.

During the Zamboanga siege, more than two hundred thousand internally-displaced people
of Zamboanga were forced to stay in unprepared evacuation sites. Tents were the primary
form of shelter for these people. When a typhoon hit these evacuation sites, the majority
of these tents were damaged and even destroyed. It created a broader and more
extensive problem that the government had to address.

In the case of migrants, due to their unfamiliarity when disaster strikes, they may be
unaware of the places such as where to ask for help and whom to ask for help. There are
instances when the host country prioritizes their citizens before they extend relief to
migrants.

Remember!
Internally-displaced persons (IDP) are persons or group of persons who are forced or
obliged to leave or to flee their homes, or places of habitual residence to avoid the
effects of armed conflicts, violations of human rights, and natural and man-made
disasters; and have not crossed an internationally recognized state border.

Demographic Factors
Settlement patterns and population density that is both associated with urbanization
increase vulnerability to disaster risk. Rapid urbanization comes with ballooning of
population. It has increased the number of people exposed and vulnerable to disaster risk.
Due to its rapidness, unplanned development and poor infrastructure pose a serious threat.

Urbanization attracts people from surrounding areas making it more difficult for the
government to provide adequate resources and training to increase capacity and prevent
disasters. Rural and small communities also have high vulnerability because of lack of
resources. Government budget for rural communities is smaller than for urban areas. Age
of population or the number of young and seniors living in communities is also a prime
factor in determining the level of vulnerability. These groups are more vulnerable because
of their inability to respond and cope with disasters. They require more attention from
the government and society during emergencies. In a typical evacuation scenario, the first
to be evacuated are women, children, and the elderly. People who also suffer from illness
are also vulnerable and need immediate attention during emergencies.

Social groups such as the marginalized (groups excluded or underrepresented in planning

and decision-making) are those discriminated against during the post-disaster rescue,
relief operations, recovery, and rehabilitation efforts.
The following are the most commonly identified marginalized or excluded groups in times
of emergencies:
● pregnant women
● racial or ethnic minority
● mentally and physically challenged individuals
● tourists
● migrants
● prisoners

These groups of people are not biologically excluded but separated through socially
constructed barriers. For example, after a typhoon hit a coastal community, the pregnant
women and the elderly were left in evacuation centers for care and medical assistance.
During typhoon Haiyan “Yolanda” a jail breakout of the inmates was reported in Leyte
Provincial Jail. This breakout was done to save their lives.

Remember!
Different sectors of society have different levels of vulnerability to disaster risk, and
they also need different levels of attention to survive in times of emergencies.

Lesson 3
Vulnerability of Certain Structures to Hazards

Aside from people and communities, it is also essential to understand the degree of
vulnerability of physical structures. Here are three primary concepts that one should know
before directly discussing the vulnerability of physical structures. This concerns houses,
buildings, roads, bridges, dams, seawalls, and other public and private infrastructures:

Engineered construction: These structures are building-code compliant. These are

designed, planned, and built by competent structural engineers and architects. These
constructions also followed the process of securing a building permit, thus ensuring the
compliance with safety standards that can withstand earthquakes and other similar
hazards.

Non-engineered construction: These structures are designed by incompetent engineers and

architects, meaning they do not have a building permit. In the same manner, they also do
not follow the safety standards of building construction.

Owner-built buildings: These buildings or houses are mainly constructed by their

respective owners with the guidance of a head-mason or master-carpenter who probably
lack knowledge and competent skills on making earthquake-proof buildings. Just like
non-engineered constructions, these types of developments or structures do not have the
necessary building permit and do not follow safety standards for buildings and houses.

There are two main types of vulnerability in physical structures:

Structural Vulnerability
This pertains to structural integrity or elements of a building and is composed of the
following:
1. Location: It primarily dictates the type and degree of vulnerability of the structure. If
the building is built on the slopes or sides of the mountains, it is more vulnerable to
landslides than those buildings situated on the plains.
2. Number of surrounding buildings: The vibration of neighboring buildings might affect its
strength and durability especially if the surrounding buildings are older and weaker, much
more if they are non-engineered ones.
3. Number of stories: Vulnerability increases when height increases.
4. Shape: Complex shapes (e.g., L-shape, Y-shape, H-shape, etc.) increase the building’s
vulnerability to damage and destruction during an earthquake.
5. Symmetry: Symmetrical planned structures as well as in elevations (both directions)
perform much better than an asymmetrical building during an earthquake.
6. Age of building: While other buildings 50 years and above still stands today, there are
also old buildings that pose hazards to occupants and surrounding houses or buildings.
Majority of these old structures are churches that are more vulnerable to earthquakes.
7. Typology: Materials used to build these structures also affect the degree of its
Vulnerability.
8. Alteration: An original nine-story building that was altered and was added additional
floor is more vulnerable to an earthquake because its structural frame was designed for
only nine-stories.
9. Maintenance: If owners poorly manage the building, eventually it will become more
vulnerable because the unseen deterioration of interior and structural frames.

Non-structural vulnerability
This pertains to other parts of a house or building that were not designed or planned with
a structural engineer:
● walls
● ceilings
● light fixtures
● doors and frames
● electrical equipment
● mechanical equipment
● plumbing
● electrical installation

Aside from these two main physical structures that are vulnerable to disaster risk, there
are also critical facilities in a community that are vulnerable in times of emergencies.
These facilities play important roles in rescue, relief, and rehabilitation:
● hospital
● water supply facilities
● electrical distribution facilities
● telecommunication lines
● transportation hubs such as airports, seaports, road, rails, and bridges
● schools that serve as evacuation areas/center

Lesson 4
Elements Exposed to Hazards

Exposure
What do the following major cities have in common: Davao City, Zamboanga City, Metro
Cebu, and Metro Manila? These urban or major cities of the country are all located on the
coast or close to the major bodies of water like rivers and coastlines. Because of this,
they are more prone to the effects of climate change; this is called exposure.

Exposure can be described as the situation of communities including its people, residences,
infrastructure, and economic resources that are located in areas that are hazard-prone
(UNISDR, 2017). If a typhoon with heavy rainfall hits a residential area, they may be
affected by the flood. Exposure varies from location and the presence of hazards in the
area. The exposure of the communities around an active Mayon volcano located in Legazpi,
Albay in Bicol Region is different from those who live in the mountains of Mindanao.

Exposure Drivers
Urbanization and the creation of major cities make people and other sectors of society
concentrated in areas exposed to hazards due population growth, migration, urbanization
and economic development (UNISDR, 2009). Previous disasters can drive exposure by
forcing people from their lands and to increasingly unsafe areas. Economic opportunities
are most likely the reason why people choose to live in many hazard-prone areas, such as
floodplains, coastlines, and the urban regions of a country. Other cultural and religious
significance of a place is also one of the reasons why some communities still reside in
hazard-prone areas.

Overpopulation as well as urban development increase chances of spreading risk to people

and assets. Developed cities become densely populated as more capital is being invested in
these areas. More jobs are created as a result of urbanization and people living in rural
areas migrate to cities to look for jobs. This scenario can make the effect of a disaster
worse.

Remember!
Urban development, previous disasters, economic opportunities, cultural and religious
reasons are examples of exposure drivers.

Elements Exposed to Hazards

Physical aspects refer to a location-specific context for human-environment interaction
(Smithers and Smith, 1997) and the material world (e.g., built structures). Settlements of
people to hazard-prone areas or landscapes because of their economic benefits and
promises have made physical exposure of human beings and its establishments to hazards
(UNISDR, 2004). Physical aspects of geography, location, and place; settlement patterns;
and physical structures including infrastructure located in hazard-prone areas or with
deficiencies in resistance or susceptibility to damage.

The 12 million plus population of Metro Manila are exposed to different hazards
like floods, liquefaction, and the 7.2 magnitude earthquake popularly known as the Big One.
Aside from the people, there are elements or sectors in Metro Manila that could also be
affected or destroyed if a disaster strikes.

From family homes to government facilities, from young children to the elderly, from small
livelihood to big corporations; and from damaged landscape to changes in biodiversity;
everyone and every single aspect or sector of society are exposed to hazards. If no
necessary capacity measures are taken, could also be they can all be victims of disasters.

Below are some examples of elements exposed to hazard:

Physical Social Economic Environmental

● houses ● young children (18 ● Small and Medium ● natural

● roads and below) Enterprises landscape
● bridges ● women (including ● livelihood ● bodies of
● railways pregnant) ● access to work water
● airports and ● elderly ● workforce ● landforms
seaports ● persons with special ● disruption of work ● biodiversity
● buildings needs and economic
● hospitals ● sick people activities
● fire stations and ● Indigenous People ● opportunity cost
equipment ● migrant workers ● livestock
● evacuation or ●Internally-displaced ● agriculture
emergency people (IDP) ● food supply
response centers ● other marginalized
● power supplies sectors
● water supplies
●telecommunication
facilities
● other government
facilities

Lesson 5
Elements Exposed to Particular Hazards
Natural phenomena such as typhoons, earthquakes, volcano eruptions are natural events
and are beyond the control of the human power. Such situations may directly or indirectly
cause risk and hazards to people. Moreover, it is not only natural events that are causing
harm to people. There are also other catastrophic events which are caused by specific
elements exposed to potential hazards. Certain elements could be exposed to particular
hazards or could be the possible hazard in itself based on the circumstance.

As mentioned at the beginning of this unit, it has been stressed that the Philippines being
one of the top 3 countries in the World Risk Index affirms that there is much to consider
regarding elements exposed to particular hazards in our country.

Elements Exposed to Particular Hazards

The conduct of disaster risk assessment is an essential activity which can practically
determine the different elements exposed to certain types of hazards. The vulnerability
of such elements if not recognized and given action can be considered as an impending
disaster.

In this situation, we can say that without any knowledge on these elements such as housing
infrastructures, material possessions, assets, as well as the people living in particular areas
where there are particular hazards; all are exposed to a specific level of risk and
vulnerability. In most cases, these elements are barely observed and often neglected
though in many instances, these elements are also the common causes of many disastrous
events which have claimed people's lives, properties, and infrastructures.

Specific Types of Elements Exposed to Particular Hazards

An electrical fire is one of the most common disasters which happens in many populated
places. In this instance, people, infrastructures and assets are the most common elements
exposed to this particular hazard.

● Electrical gadgets and appliances left unattended

There were many cases wherein electrical devices and gadgets have been the cause of fire.
When overheating happens in densely populated areas where houses are made of light
materials, it is more likely to create a disastrous situation.
● Faulty electrical wirings
Most of the electrical fires happen because of defective wiring. In most cases,
non-compliance to standards were the common reasons for the occurrence of electrical
fires.
● Faulty outlets and outdated appliances
Some fires started because of outdated or poorly maintained old appliances.
● Light fixtures
Light fixtures such as light bulbs are also subject to electrical fires. Lamps with too high
or wrong wattage is one of the leading causes of electrical fires.
● Extension cords
Overloaded extension cord is another primary cause of electrical fires.
● Space heater
Some people with a high-level use of heaters are considered to be a contributing factor to
causes of electrical fires.
● Biological substances and chemicals
Many people are unknowingly exposed to substances that are hazardous to health
which are usually in the wide range of chemical and biological agents which used in
household work activities or even in the workplace. Many of these substances are volatile
and flammable. Improper containers, wrong handling, storage, or disposal practices can
start a fire (though not of electrical but of chemical or biological origin).

Lesson 6
Vulnerabilities of Elements Exposed to Hazards

Remember!
Exposure and vulnerability are two different things. Two elements can be exposed in the
same setting but have different levels of vulnerability.

Types of Vulnerabilities of Elements Exposed to Hazards

Physical vulnerability refers to objects that are susceptible to hazards. This includes
classifying the vulnerability of different elements such as houses, buildings, and
infrastructure. Physical vulnerability of an area depends on how up close hazards are to
their location. People and structures nearer to the source of a hazard are more vulnerable
to disasters as opposed to those located farther.

Design and engineering of structures also play an important role in identifying the physical
vulnerability. A structure designed and built with the supervision of architects and
engineers will be less vulnerable to disasters as opposed to an unsupervised building.

The material composition of structures contributes to physical vulnerability. Wooden

houses are more susceptible to fire hazard as opposed to those made up of concrete, but
wooden houses are less prone to collapse during earthquakes.

Social vulnerability encompasses identifying people’s capacity to cope with hazards, being
able to form a structured organization, and creating an implementation of proper disaster
risk reduction and management.

Differently abled people are more vulnerable to hazards. The deaf will not be able to hear
warning alarms of an impending disaster such as a tsunami. Paraplegic (paralyzed) people,
those who have paralysis on both legs, will need assistance to evacuate an area that is
about to be flooded. The blind will not be able to see where to vacate if his or her
settlement is on fire.

The absence of organizational structure adds to social vulnerability. Without a system

that creates and decides for actions before, during, and after disasters, people and
communities will be in chaos. Communities will have more difficulty in avoiding disasters.
Proper information dissemination, protocols, and early warning systems also reduce social
vulnerabilities because they create a well-informed community in preparing for impending
disasters and coping with disasters when they happen.
Environmental vulnerability describes the potential degradation of the surrounding
landscapes including bodies of land and water, and biodiversity due to hazards. This
vulnerability is of great concern because of the environment’s diverse role to the people
and the community.

The Philippines gets most of its resources from the environment. A lot of livelihoods and
settlements are situated in areas where environmental vulnerabilities are high. One factor
that affects environmental vulnerability is climate change. It increases the overall
temperature of the ocean and the atmosphere. It also increases the chance of
unpredictable weather patterns. The result is a highly destructive nature that degrades
more landscape, creates more flood, and threatens biodiversity even more.

Economic vulnerability identifies the potential losses of resources of the people and the
community. This is linked to other types of vulnerabilities. Economic losses are incurred
when physical disasters occur. Destruction of houses, buildings, or infrastructures has a
significant effect on the resources of a person, community, or business.
Being highly dependent on natural resources also makes an environmental vulnerability an
economic vulnerability, such as those whose livelihoods are dependent on agriculture,
fisheries, and animal farming. Poverty is a socioeconomic factor that is of great concern.
It limits the resources of people and the community to cope with hazards. People who
cannot afford to hire licensed architects and engineers will build a vulnerable house. A
community who does not have enough resources will not be able to create a comprehensive
monitoring system for early warning signs of an impending landslide, flood, tsunami, and
other hazards.

Remember!
The four types of vulnerabilities are not mutually exclusive. They can be linked to one
another such as the case for the economic impacts of a vulnerable environment and
building structures.

Capacity to Cope with Hazards

Hazards are difficult, if not impossible, to remove from a particular area. Exposure of
element is much easier to reduce. Reducing the vulnerabilities of different elements
exposed to hazards can be done.

Most people can cope to lessen the adverse effects and risk of hazards within themselves
or a particular area. This applies to all kinds of people as long as they can gather
resources, network, information, and skills to help against the imminent hazard around
them.
Resources are important in capacity building to lessen vulnerabilities of elements. Buildings
and infrastructures can be strengthened and designed against hazards such as fires,
earthquakes, and flooding. Resource planning such as creating food and water storage for
future disasters can increase a person’s coping ability. Network and social resources can
significantly increase a person’s capacity to cope with hazards.

Social interaction and communication among members of the community are crucial in
creating a well-planned structure against a potential disaster. The social network also
helps in gathering and disseminating information to the concerned members of the
community. Increased knowledge among locals also helps in improving one’s capacity. Local
and professional knowledge, when weaved properly, help in formulating a proper risk
reduction response to decrease an area’s vulnerability to hazard.

The diagram shows the relationship of exposure and capacity to cope to vulnerability. A
community with high or low exposure to hazard but has a high coping capacity has lower
vulnerability compared to a community with a low coping capacity.

Lesson 7
Hazards, Exposures, and Vulnerabilities

Hazard
Hazard is defined by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) [2
February 2017] as “a process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation”. There are three (3) main types of hazards; natural,
anthropogenic, and socio-natural.

● Natural hazards are predominantly associated with natural processes and phenomena
(UNISDR, 2017). These hazards are impossible to prevent. Natural hazards can further be
categorized as biological, geological/geophysical, and hydro-meteorological, depending on
its origin.

Type Examples

Biological Hazards ● epidemic

● toxins
● virus (SARS, AH1N1, and Bird Flu)

Geological and Geophysical Hazards ● earthquakes

● rockslides
● surface collapse
● debris/mud flows
● tsunamis
● sinkhole
● volcanic eruption

Hydro-meteorological Hazards ● typhoon or hurricane

● storm surge
● El Niňo
● La Niňa
● flood
● flash flood
● wildfire

Anthropogenic hazards are human-induced hazards, induced entirely or predominantly by

human activities and choices (UNISDR, 2017). Technological hazards which are
anthropogenic in nature, also may arise directly as a result of the impacts of a natural
hazard event (UNISDR, 2017).
 Type Examples

Technological Hazards ● industrial pollution

● nuclear radiation
● toxic wastes
● dam failures
● transport accidents (plane crash or ship sinking)
● factory explosions
● fires
● oil and chemical spills

● Socio-natural hazards is the combination of anthropogenic and natural factors such as

environmental degradation and climate change (UNISDR, 2017). It can also happen when a
natural hazard interacted with degraded environmental resources. Many incidents of land
subsidence, flooding, and drought can be attributed to the interaction of a natural hazard
and a degraded environment.

Unit 3

Review
● A natural event or phenomena is a physical event that is natural in origin (geological,
hydrometeorological or biological).
● Vulnerability increases the susceptibility of a given community to the impact of a
hazard. Vulnerability is affected by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or
processes.
● Exposure is the degree or likelihood that a hazard will be experienced by elements at
risk. Exposure comes in varying degrees depending on the proximity of exposed elements
to hazards and the magnitude of the hazard event.
● A disaster happens when the impact of hazards on human lives and the socio-economic
activities is significant and extensive.
● A catastrophe is bigger than a disaster. For some, the damage caused by Typhoon
Yolanda is considered a catastrophe.
● World Risk Index is calculated by Alliance Development Works/Bündnis Entwicklung
Hilft (BEH) and United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security.
It calculates the natural disaster risks for 171 countries. It is released annually by Bündnis
Entwicklung Hilft (BEH).
● Climate is the average weather conditions of a place or regions of the Earth observed
over a period of years. The weather conditions include temperature, wind velocity, and
precipitation.
● The Plate Tectonics Theory states that the lithosphere is made up of several plates that
move either by floating on or gliding over the asthenosphere. Seismic and tectonic activity
occur at the plate boundaries.
● Volcanoes that are located at the plate boundaries in the Pacific Ocean area are
observed to form a “ring.” This area is called the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Lesson 1
Hazards

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines hazard as a
natural event or a human activity that has the potential of causing loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental
degradation. Hazards are future threats coming from different origins. Natural events are
geological, hydrometeorological, and biological in origin. Environmental degradation and
technological hazards are results of human activities.

Remember!
Hazards are potential threats to human life and property. That threat is determined by
demographics, urbanization, poverty, and environment.

Hazard completes the three elements of disaster risk. Hazard, exposure, and vulnerability
increase the occurrence of disaster risk. Combining the three elements, the damage to life
and property becomes significant. A hazard can transform into a disaster depending on
exposure and vulnerability. Underlying the three elements are human decisions and actions.
Where to live, what to build, and what livelihoods to participate in, are questions and
decisions that affect the levels of exposures to hazards. Living and health conditions,
resources and skills define vulnerabilities. The frequency of hazardous events, therefore,
greatly depends on socioeconomic conditions and activities.

Lesson 2
Types of hazards

The understanding of hazards includes the knowledge of the what, where, when, why, and
how we can help in reducing the impact of hazards on human lives, socio-economic
activities, and the environment. Hazards are of different origins. They vary in size and
impact. Hazards can be induced by human activities, or they can be results of the
interactions of the natural phenomena and human activities.

UNISDR classified hazards into two: natural and human-induced. Hazards of natural origin
can be categorized as geological, hydrometeorological, or biological. Geological hazards are
natural events that originated from movements of the crust and this includes earthquake,
volcanic eruptions, tsunami, and landslide. Hydro-meteorological hazards originated from
atmospheric conditions and composition. Cyclones and its associated hazards such as storm
surges can either be called hydro-meteorological or atmospheric hazard. Biological hazards
originated from living organisms and these are usually in the form of harmful
microorganisms that have potentials to cause epidemics.

Under human-induced or anthropogenic hazards are environmental degradation and

technological. But when there is an interaction between natural events and human
activities, it is referred to as a quasi-natural hazard. Many natural hazards may be
influenced by human activities. An example would be a landslide due to a mining activity in
the area. Drought can be classified as climatic because it results from long periods without
precipitation. However, drought can be influenced by human activities that brought about
climate changes.

Another way to classify natural hazards is to group them into tectonic and climatic.
Tectonic hazards pertain to impacts of the earth movements. In this classification system,
geological hazards are classified as tectonic and some hazards that may also be related to
water (e.g. tsunamis, lahar flow, sand boils, geysers) are traced to their tectonic origins.
Climatic hazards refer to the impacts of weather conditions but there can be
weather-related hazards that bring about geological hazards. For instance, typhoon can
induce a landslide in a deforested mountainous area.

Remember!
Human actions can induce natural hazards to increase their occurrence and impact. Pumping
groundwater increases the occurrence of ground subsidence, or destroying mangroves
increases the impact of wave actions or tsunamis.

Hazards may be classified in several ways but they are always either due to natural
processes or induced/influenced by human activities. Hazard risks are increasing due to
the growing population, increased urbanization, and human-induced changes in the
environment. The consequences of these hazards will have social, economic, and
environmental impacts. The risks depend on the decisions and actions people take. Rather
than inducing the hazard risks, especially for the nations with poor coping capacity, global
citizenry and responsibility on risk reduction should be practiced. Understanding hazards,
their origins, and types are the first among the steps towards eliminating or reducing
hazard risks.

Lesson 3
Impact of Hazards on Exposed Elements

Magnitude refers to the strength and power of an earthquake to which we can predict its
potential destructive capacity. Intensity measures the severity of an earthquake or the
level of impact it caused in a specific area. For example, the Richter Magnitude Scale
measures the released energy in an earthquake. The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
measures volcanic explosive eruptions. The Fujita Scale rates the intensity of hurricanes.

For typhoons or rainfall, color codes or numbers serve as warnings. Advisories also report
the size and severity of the hazard. The onset of hazards, its duration, and frequency
based on historical records are also utilized to describe and predict the occurrence of
hazards. These measurements are useful in determining the levels of risks, potential
damages, disruptions, and most importantly the level of responses to minimize the impact
of hazards.

Remember!
The magnitude of a hazard does not define its impact on people and infrastructures. It is
the size of the population, the type of structures and their number that determines the
impact of a hazard.
The levels of impact of hazards depend on its interaction with the physical, social,
economic and environmental elements found in a given geographical location of people,
property, and infrastructure. Disaster risk increases as the interactions between the
hazard and the elements increase. The interactions expose the elements to the hazard
thereby increasing their susceptibility to the impact of the hazard. What are the impacts
of the hazards to these exposed elements?

Physical Impact
This includes the destruction or damage to infrastructure such as facilities, transport
systems, roads and bridges, communication systems, water supply systems, and energy
supplies and power lines. Housing and tangible human assets belong to this impact.
Mortality, human injuries, and health impacts are classified under this as well.

Socio-cultural Impact
Hazards can disrupt human and community activities. Populations like ethnic groups are
displaced and are forced to migrate and adapt to a new culture and environment. This may
cause loss of cultural identity and conflicts. All of these cause human stress.

Economic Impact
The disruption of economic activities will have a negative impact on investments and
economic opportunities, production capacities, supply and flow of resources, and delivery
of services and goods. This will lead to loss of livelihood and increased poverty. The latter
will push people further towards a negative coping capacity to hazards and disasters.

Environmental Impact
Hazards can change physical features of land and water forms. Tributaries can be
permanently flooded, or coastlines can take a new shape or appearance. Land surfaces in
both urban and mountainous areas can lose their permeability surfaces which bring
flooding and landslides.

Land subsidence is another consequence. Hazards can also increase the pressure on
marginal lands, coastal, and low lying areas. The intrusion of saltwater into freshwater
sources can also happen. Hazards affect biodiversity, ecosystem balance, and its
sustainability. This type of disturbance can impact other elements, or it can trigger
another hazard.

Biological Impact
A hazard or a disaster can cause another form of hazard to happen. An explosion of a
nuclear reactor caused by an earthquake will increase radiation levels in the vicinity.
Exposure to radiation causes chronic and permanent illnesses. Epidemics and the spread of
viral or bacterial diseases also fall under this impact.

Hazards have different impacts on people. Their vulnerabilities are determined by their
skills, resources, their community organizations, and the government. The coping capacities
of people are shaped by these factors. Disaster risk reduction programs should be built
around these factors.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
Ground Shaking

An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large volume
of rock along fractures on the surface of the earth called faults. The outermost shell of
the earth, which includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, consists of tectonic plates.
These are massive and irregularly shaped slabs of rock. Due to their roughness, the edges
of these plates get stuck while the plates continue moving. Eventually, when the plates
move far enough to overcome the friction of the fault and separate; the energy stored in
the rocks is released in the form of seismic waves.
As these waves travel through rocks beneath the earth, they radiate energy in all
directions like ripples on water. This produces the shaking felt on the surface.

There are two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
seismic waves that travel through the interior of the earth.

Primary (P) waves are the first waves that reach the surface of the earth and make the
ground shake. They move the ground back and forth along the direction they are traveling.
The shaking from P waves is light or sometimes not felt.

Secondary (S) waves are body waves that vibrate perpendicular to their propagation
direction, producing an up and down motion. They move slower but shake the ground more
strongly than P waves.

Surface waves are waves that are trapped near the surface. Love waves are surface waves
that have a horizontal motion perpendicular to the direction they are traveling. Rayleigh
waves shake the ground in a rotational manner with no transverse motion.

The severity of an earthquake is measured based on the energy it releases, or its

magnitude, and its effects on people and man-made structures, or what we call intensity.

Remember
● P waves and S waves are seismic waves that move through the interior of the earth. Love
waves, and Rayleigh waves, on the other hand, are surface waves.
● P waves push and pull. S waves move the ground up and down. Love waves resemble
snakes. Rayleigh’s waves roll.

Frequency is the number of times a movement such as ground shaking is repeated within a
certain amount of time. High frequency earthquakes affect small buildings more than the
high rise ones. Think of it this way: a small boat will not be significantly rocked by a single
huge wave. However, if struck by rapid, successive waves, the boat can capsize. On the
other hand, large structures like skyscrapers will sway more when experiencing
low-frequency earthquake waves or a long, slow shaking.
The intensity of ground shaking is also influenced by the distance from the fault.
Intuitively, you would expect to feel ground shaking more strongly if you were closer to
the fault. This is true for most earthquakes, but you may also experience the same
strength of shaking even if
you were farther because of the physical properties of the ground that the structure was
built on, and the structure itself.

When waves travel from hard (e.g. igneous rocks) to soft materials (e.g. limestone,
sandstone, alluvium) and lose velocity, they must undergo an increase in amplitude to
maintain the same amount of energy. Hence, shaking is felt more strongly in areas with
soft rock, where seismic waves move slower.

Ground shaking is the primary cause of earthquake damage to man-made structures. It

causes buildings and other infrastructures to collapse which may result to injuries or
casualties. In cases where it breaks water dams, flash floods may occur. Fire is a
secondary hazard if the shaking sufficiently damages electric and gas lines. Ground
shaking also triggers other earthquake hazards such as landslides and liquefaction.

It is not impossible to minimize the damage caused by ground shaking. Thorough geologic
site investigation, stricter building code implementations, and earthquake-resistant
construction are some ways of doing this.

Knowing the characteristics of the ground you intend to build a structure on can help
reduce potential ground shaking damage. You may opt to avoid constructing in an area if
the underlying material amplifies ground shaking.

A building code is a set of rules that set standards on the construction of buildings. If
properly implemented, it can ensure that buildings are constructed properly, can survive an
earthquake with minimal damage, and therefore, not endanger the occupants.
Earthquake-resistant buildings are by no means immune to earthquakes, but will sustain
less damage than their conventional counterparts.

Lesson 2
Ground Rupture

Ground rupture is the visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along the
trace of a fault. It may be a vertical movement, a lateral movement, or a combination of
both, depending on the type of fault generating it.

Strike-slip faults are vertical or near-vertical faults that displace rock horizontally. If the
block opposite you when looking across a fault moves to the left, it is a sinistral (or
left-lateral) fault. If the block moves to the right, it is a dextral (or right-lateral) fault.

Normal faults are characterized by the downward movement of the hanging wall with
respect to the footwall. Reverse or thrust faults are faults which move the hanging wall
up. These faults are dip-slip faults, which causes a vertical displacement of the ground.
Oblique fault combination of strike slip fault and dip slip fault. It can be reverse plus
left-lateral displacement or normal plus right-lateral displacement.

Reverse or thrust faults

Inclined of less than 45 degrees

3 parts of fault
Fault line - fracture on the ground caused by the movement of the earth’s tectonic plate
Hanging wall- block of rock that lies above an incline fault
Foot wall- block position under hanging hall

In the following examples, we will see that a fault can have both strike-slip and dip-slip
components. A fault can be both normal and strike-slip (either sinistral or dextral), or
reverse and strike-slip. But it can never, at the same time, be both sinistral and dextral
strike-slip, or both normal and reverse. The primary type of a fault depends on which slip
component is predominant or more obvious.

Remember!
● Strike-slip faults cause lateral (dextral or sinistral) movement.
● Dip-slip faults cause vertical (normal or reverse) movement.
● Ground rupture can be a combination or lateral and vertical movements such as
left-lateral normal, right-lateral reverse, left-lateral reverse, right-lateral normal.

Lesson 3
Liquefaction

Liquefaction occurs when the ground loses stiffness and behaves like liquid in response to
earthquakes. When shaking happens, grains of the underlying material vibrate and undergo
compaction, wherein the sediments are compressed and fluids in the pore spaces are
squeezed out. As a result of the decrease in the spaces between grains, the pore water
pressure increases. When the pore water pressure is equal to the weight of the overlying
material, liquefaction occurs.

The ground becomes unable to support the structures on top of it, causing buildings to tilt
on their sides and/or sink into the ground. Objects underground like pipes and storage
tanks can literally float to the surface. In some cases, groundwater rises and causes flood.

Liquefaction is affected by different factors such as duration, intensity of the shaking,

proximity to the fault, density of infrastructure in the area, and geology. Stronger,
prolonged shaking produces a greater degree of liquefaction. Liquefaction at depth can
cause geysers of sand and water to shoot from the ground, a phenomenon called sand boils.

Most earthquake hazards in areas closer to the fault or earthquake-generating structure

are more likely to experience the brunt of liquefaction. However, this does not necessarily
mean that places distal to the source of the shaking will be spared. Research on
earthquakes occurring in different areas by Leeder (1982) shows that liquefaction affect
areas as far as hundreds of kilometers away from the epicenter.
Denser infrastructure or more buildings in a certain area contributes to the weight of the
sediments. It is for this reason that the impact of liquefaction on populated centers is
more severe as compared with the less populated or underdeveloped areas.

Loosely-packed, saturated sediments are especially vulnerable to this earthquake

hazard. Most urban communities are built upon such materials. In the case for Metro
Manila, liquefaction susceptibility maps have been prepared by PHIVOLCS to monitor
potential liquefaction sites and to disseminate this information to the public. You can find
these and other hazard maps on their website.

Remember!
● In liquefaction, the ground is unable to support the structures on top of it, causing
buildings to tilt and/or sink into the ground.
● Liquefaction is affected by the duration and intensity of the shaking, proximity to the
fault, density of structures on the surface; and the kind of materials underneath the
surface.

Lesson 4
Earthquake-Induced Landslides

Mass wasting, more commonly known as a landslide, is the downslope movement of rocks or
sediments under the influence of gravity. It is the process that follows weathering or the
removal of rock or debris from their original source. Landslides can be triggered by
factors such as heavy or prolonged rain, oversteepened slopes, removal of vegetation, and
earthquakes.

Vibrations from an earthquake and its aftershocks can displace significant amounts of rock
or sediment. For an earthquake to induce landslides, the following factors must be
considered: the strength of the earthquake, the distance from the fault, topography,
climate, and the characteristics of the rock or soil.

Aside from the earthquake, the landslide was also caused by intense, prolonged rainfall and
creep. Creep is the gradual, almost imperceptible downward displacement of sloping rock or
soil caused by buildup of significant strain.

Earthquake-induced landslides are more likely to occur in areas located at a certain

distance from the fault.

Specific topographies have a greater likelihood of experiencing earthquake-induced

landslides. These landslides typically occur in hilly and mountainous areas, especially in
portions where the slope is cut to build roads and other man-made structures. Moderate
to steep slopes promote the gravity-driven movement of rock and sediments.

Extended periods of rainfall increase the moisture content of the soil/sediments on a

slope, making these materials more susceptible to earthquake-induced failure.

The characteristics of the rock or soil in an area affects the occurrence of

earthquake-induced landslides. Old, weathered rocks are more prone to collapse from
ground shaking than younger, relatively unweathered ones. Loose, unconsolidated materials
are more likely to fall in the event of an earthquake than indurated rock. However, when
the rock (even an indurated one) has fractures and other planes of weaknesses,
earthquake-induced landslides may occur.

How soon a landslide occurs after an earthquake varies. It can be abrupt, giving you little
time to prepare or flee. In some cases, there are warning signs you can watch out for.
These include:
● cracks or bulges in the road or ground that weren’t there before;
● increased soil content in streams;
● leaning poles or walls;
● a rumbling sound that grows louder (indicating the approach of a landslide); and
● unusual sounds such as cracking trees and colliding rocks.

The effects of earthquake-induced landslides can be minimized by avoiding construction on

or near steep slopes and natural drainage ways. Knowing what kind of material your house is
built on and if there are any nearby faults or earthquake-generating structures can help
you plan what to do and evacuate, when necessary. Stabilizing slopes or walls of rock also
reduces the chances of an earthquake-induced landslide.
Remember!
The following factors affect the occurence of an earthquake-induced landslide: the
strength of the earthquake, the distance from the fault, topography, climate, and the
characteristics of the rock or soil, and the man-made changes or structures on the area.

An earthquake-induced landslide susceptibility map is useful in determining vulnerable

areas. Maps prepared by PHIVOLCS for the different regions of the Philippines are
available on their website. These take into consideration two factors: critical acceleration
and intensity.
Note that the legend includes two intensity scales, the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI),
and the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS). Both scales do not have a
mathematical basis; the levels are based on the effects of the earthquake observed.
Higher numbers indicate greater structural damage or shaking felt. PEIS was developed
specifically for the Philippine setting and takes into account the geography and geology of
the country.

Intensity Description

I Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable

circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
Water in containers oscillates slowly.

II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects

swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.

III Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings.
Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are
experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water
in containers oscillates moderately.

IV Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people

outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of
heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses,
windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings creak.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly
disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may
sometimes be heard.

V Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping
people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong
shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing
violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and
unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open
containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs
of trees are noticeable.

VI Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people
lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or
furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster
may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are
slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited
rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and
escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.

VII Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it
difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or
topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer
considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged.
Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete
hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are
observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which
loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like
liquid).

VIII Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
 outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete
dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or
toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced,
twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or
topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction
and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple.
Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the
epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently
shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or banks of rivers.

IX Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake
with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and elevated
concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts,
towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are
bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings
and sand boils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations.
Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are
commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slopes over dikes
and banks.

X Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are

destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and
uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in
river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are
toppled, broken and uprooted.

Lesson 5
Tsunamis

A tsunami is a series of waves generated by large-scale displacements of water which are

usually triggered by earthquakes or major submarine landslides. It is a Japanese word
which translates to ‘harbor wave’ (tsu meaning ‘harbor’ and nami meaning ‘wave’).

When an earthquake occurs beneath the sea, the water above the affected area moves
upward and produces tsunamis. These waves initially have a small height but grow as they
move through shallower depths, a process called wave shoaling, and approach the shore.

Similar to seismic waves traveling from hard to soft material, tsunamis lose velocity as
they move across lower water depths. This decrease in velocity is compensated by an
increase in amplitude or wave height.

A tsunami that is only hundreds of centimeters offshore can grow up to hundreds of

meters! Such was the case for the 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami which had a record height
of 524 m.

Tsunamis usually originate from earthquakes that occur in subduction zones. Subduction
zones are sites at convergent boundaries, where two or more tectonic plates collide,
wherein one plate descends (subducts) beneath another. The downward movement of the
subducting plate is driven by temperature. Colder lithosphere is denser and will sink.
A tsunami can be local or regional. Local tsunamis are from a nearby source. They are
confined to coasts within 100 km or the distance they travel within less than an hour. An
example of this is the 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan. On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.1
earthquake occurred offshore east of Tohoku along the subduction zone where the Pacific
Plate and the Eurasian Plate collide.

Regional tsunamis affect a wide geographical area, typically within 1,000 km or 1-3 hours
of the wave travel time. The 2004 Sumatran-Andaman earthquake (and tsunami), for
instance, devastated not only the islands near its epicenter Sumatra, but also countries
surrounding the Indian Ocean such as India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Africa, and the Maldives.

The damage and destruction from tsunamis depend on the degree of flooding, wave impact
on structures, and erosion. A tsunami may only induce flooding similar to an increase in tide
levels. In some cases, it causes intense inundation which can move and overturn buildings
and cars.

Wave impact can be strong enough to break walls and building frames. Death by drowning
or physical trauma is also a common consequence. Debris from damaged structures can be
carried by the current, adding to the destructive force of the tsunami. Tsunamis can
erode foundations and coasts, leading to the collapse of structures within the vicinity.

Tsunamis can be predicted, as was done for the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. However, the
magnitude of the tsunami and the devastation it had caused were beyond what had been
anticipated.

Tsunamis are detected by open-ocean buoys and tide gauges, which monitor and report any
changes in sea level. An earthquake of magnitude 7.5 is enough to put into effect a tsunami
watch. When a tsunami is observed to have passed that triggered the tide stations, a
tsunami warning is issued and evacuation procedures are then followed.

You can check if a tsunami is approaching. The following are some natural signs of an
impending tsunami:
● prolonged, severe ground shaking;
● receding sea level or retreating ocean, exposing rocks, fish, and corals in the ocean
bottom;
● loud ‘roaring’ similar to the sound of a freight train or aircraft; and
● a huge incoming wall of water.

If you find yourself in such a situation, evacuate to higher ground immediately. Stay clear
of any low-lying or coastal areas even after the first wave has struck. Tsunamis arrive in
series of waves that may be several hours apart.

Remember!
● Tsunamis usually originate from underwater earthquakes due to movements in
subduction zones.
● Tsunamis can be predicted but the damage and destruction it will cause cannot be
precisely anticipated.
Unit 5
Lesson 1
Lava Flow

Lava is a molten rock or magma that has reached the surface of the earth. Lava flow
occurs when magma contacts the surface of a volcano and erupts or overflows downhill
from different volcanic openings.
Lava flows can be fluid or viscous depending on its composition, temperature, and gas
content. Lava with low silica content, high temperature, and low gas content is considered
more fluid. While lava with high silica content, low temperature, and has a high gas content
is more viscous.

Types of Lava Flows

Lava flows come in two types: Pahoehoe, pronounced as /pa-hoy-hoy/, and Aa, pronounced
as /ah-ah/. Pahoehoe is lava flow that has high fluidity creating a smooth and ropy texture
when they harden. As this type of lava cools, Pahoehoe transitions into an Aa. This is
because of the slower and more viscous characteristics of the lava creating a blocky and
jagged appearance. Aa does not necessarily transition from Pahoehoe.

Negative Impacts of Lava Flows

Lava flows seldom threaten human life as most lava flows as fast as a human’s normal
walking pace. They can also be monitored quite easily compared to other volcanic hazards.
Lava flows are still hazardous because they can crush and bury structures and livelihoods.
They solidify over time making the areas buried by the lava useless. The solidification of
lava also blocks roads and other pathways normally used by people. Lava flows also burn
surroundings because of its intense heat. Flammable resources such as wood, plants, and
houses can get caught on fire as lava flows along their path.

Mitigating the Negative Effects of Lava Flows

Like other volcanic hazards, lava flow cannot be stopped. Some can be controlled, however,
to minimize its effects on people’s lives. Artificial barriers can be constructed to prevent
and divert lava from flowing over a particular area. Water jets can also be used to cool and
slow it down, eventually stopping its movement. Use of explosives can also alter the
pathway and source of the lava flow.

Examples of Volcanic Eruption with Lava Flows and Response of Communities

Mayon Volcano: Mount Mayon, located in the Bicol Region, is one of the most active
volcanoes in the Philippines. It has erupted several times on different occasions, spewing
different types of material including lava. Lava flows from Mayon Volcano have been
recorded since the early 17th century. Since then, no casualties caused by lava flow has
been recorded. This is due to the ease of monitoring of the lava flow, and the fast
information dissemination to the communities about the impending lava flow arriving on
their area. Damages on properties and livelihoods, however, were imminent as lava flowed
through the
different towns surrounding the volcano. Early warning systems have been put in place by
the Philippine government’s volcano observatory agency, the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), to minimize casualties and lessen the effects of
these lava flows to the community.

Kilauea Volcano: Mount Kilauea in Hawaii is one of the most recognizable volcanoes in the
world that produces lava flow. Hawaii is one of the known areas where lava flows
constantly occur. Because the island of Hawaii is made out of active volcanoes, volcanic
hazards have become part of their lives.

The map below shows Hawaii, and the different volcanoes found on the island. Most of
Hawaii is highlighted with mid to high risk of hazards occurring. These zones are areas
where lava flows have previously occurred and are expected to occur once new lava erupts.
Only less than half of the island shows low risk of hazards happening because little to no
volcanic activity occurs within those zones.

Lesson 2
Volcanic Gases

Similar to a bottle of soda, magma contains volcanic gases that try to escape to Earth’s
surface through volcanic openings. The release of volcanic gases is one of the most
common volcanic activities that occur before, during, and after eruptions. They are
released through different openings on the volcano.

Volcanic gases are composed of different materials depending on its location. Water vapor
(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) typically make up the bulk composition of volcanic gases,
followed by sulfur dioxide (SO2). Other common volcanic gases include hydrogen chloride
(HCl), and hydrogen fluoride (HF).

Remember!
Volcano hazards are not mutually exclusive. Different volcano hazards can occur at the
same time just like how volcanic gas can occur with or without lava flow.
Negative Impacts of Volcanic Gas
Most volcanic gases are hazardous to people except for water vapor. Sulfur dioxide, when
injected into the atmosphere, can form into sulfuric acid which is a component of acid rain.
Acid rain does not only harm people but the environment as well. Acid rain can lessen water
intake by plants making them difficult to thrive. An increase in the acidity of aquatic
bodies is harmful to plenty of animals and can damage buildings, cars, statues, and other
man-made structures. Direct contact with sulfur dioxide can also irritate the eyes, cause
skin rash, and poison the respiratory system. Carbon dioxide is also dangerous, especially in
high concentrations. It can cause asphyxiation without warning because of the gas’
odorless and colorless nature. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, and it moves toward
low-lying areas from its initial source which can create a high concentration of the gas
within populated areas.

Mitigating the Negative Effects of Volcanic Gas

Unlike lava flows which move slowly thus giving time for an early warning to those at risk,
volcanic gases sometimes get released into volcanic openings with minimal notice. Their
flow is also dependent on the current wind direction, unlike lava flows which merely follows
the contour of the land.

Volcanic gases are monitored using different techniques by volcano observatories to

frequently identify if a volcano is emitting hazardous levels of volcanic gas. Those
immediately
surrounding the area would be adversely affected, and wearing of masks is recommended.
It is advisable to leave the vicinity immediately, once volcanic gases have been released
into the atmosphere.

Public awareness of the different types of volcanic gas hazards is also one of the most
effective means to reduce risk.

Volcanic Gases and their Impacts

The Disaster in Lake Nyos: One of the most notable disasters that occurred because of
volcanic gases was in 1986 in Lake Nyos, Central Africa. Lake Nyos is a crater lake formed
on the top of an old volcano. Underneath the lake was a large pocket of carbon dioxide gas
waiting to be unleashed.

In August 1986, the unexpected happened. An eruption of gas took place underneath Lake
Nyos spewing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the air. Residents saw this eruption, but
they were not aware of the hazards it would cause because of the odorless and colorless
nature of the gas.

The dense carbon dioxide gas rushed down towards the northern valleys near the lake and
suffocated almost two thousand people. Since then, the stretch has been mitigated by
putting a degassing pipe to safely release the gas pressure underneath the lake and
prevent future casualties.

The Sulfur Gas of Mount Ijen: There is an active volcano named Mount Ijen located in
Java, Indonesia that releases high amounts of sulfur-rich volcanic gases. The locals are
mining the area near the crater of the volcano for its high sulfur concentration. It is also
well known to tourists because the volcano produces blue flames when sulfur from its lava
combusts when in contact with the air.

Locals and tourists hike here every day even if they are exposed to high amounts of
volcanic gases. Short exposure to these gases does not have a lasting effect. However, the
sulfur miners around the area have had different health problems such as poisoned lungs,
irritated eyes, and teeth dissolution.

Lesson 3
Pyroclastic Flows

Pyroclastic Flows are hot, dry, turbulent mass mixtures of different pyroclastic materials
and gases that move downwards along the slope of a volcano at speed that can go up to
several 100 meters per second. Pyroclastic materials, also known as tephra, is a collective
term for volcanic fragments that have been ejected out of a volcano which vary in sizes
from ash to boulders.

Pyroclastic flows are composed of two parts: a basal flow of coarse pyroclastic materials,
and a turbulent ash cloud riding over the basal flow. When the turbulent ash cloud
separates from the main pyroclastic flow, they are separately called the pyroclastic surge.
Pyroclastic surges have lower density and are more mobile than pyroclastic flows because
of their higher ratio of gas to tephra.

Remember!
Pyroclastic flows are different from pyroclastic surges. Pyroclastic flows are denser and
follow the topography of the area. Pyroclastic surges are less dense and less predictable
because they can move in any direction other than the topography of the area.

Types of Pyroclastic Flow

Pyroclastic flows occur in different ways. The most notable type is called the Soufrière
type. This forms from the collapse of a high vertical column coming from a highly explosive
eruption. When the force of gravity overcomes the momentum of the upward thrust of the
eruption, the pyroclastic materials begin to fall creating a pyroclastic flow along the sides
of the volcano.

Meanwhile, the Pelée type occurs when a highly viscous lava dome blocks the opening of a
volcano, building pressure until it can no longer be contained and explodes to one side of
the volcano without forming a high eruption column.

The Merapi type, on the other hand, occurs when a lava dome grows too steep over a
volcanic crater which then falls due to gravitational force.

Negative Impacts and Mitigation of Pyroclastic Flows

One of the most dangerous hazards from a volcano is pyroclastic flows. Its highly
destructive
nature is attributed to its high temperature, high velocity, and high mobility relative to
other volcano hazards. Without warning, they can cause casualties, damages and
destruction.
Its size, accompanied by intense heat, and speed of travel, can destroy virtually any
structure along its path. The impact from its speed can crush, shatter, and carry away
objects of even large sizes. The intense heat from within the flow can burn forests, lands,
agriculture, buildings, and other flammable materials along its path. Its internal heat after
the pyroclastic flow can even last for decades, so immediate resettlement within the area
is not possible.

Humans can get asphyxiated, be buried alive, and incinerated upon contact. Pyroclastic
flows and surges are also precursors to one of the many volcano hazards, like lahar, which
is formed when pyroclastic materials mix with water or ice creating a muddy mixture that
can affect areas further downslope.

There are no possible ways to stop a pyroclastic flow from happening. Pyroclastic flows
cannot also be easily identified before an eruption. Early warning and evacuation before a
potential volcanic eruption are the only risk-mitigating actions possible for such events.

Example of Impacts of Pyroclastic Flows

One of the five greatest eruptions of the 20th century was the Mt. Pinatubo eruption. For
the first time in roughly 500 years, Mt. Pinatubo erupted on June 9, 1991 and continued to
erupt weeks after. It had the most explosive eruption on June 12, and 15 wherein
unquantifiable amounts of volcanic material spewed out to the atmosphere as high as 30
kilometers and resulted to 36 hours without daylight on the surrounding area. The
resulting eruption created a disastrous pyroclastic flow that traveled as far as 16
kilometers from the volcanic vent.

About 20,000 indigenous people and more than a million lowlanders surrounding the volcano
were directly affected. As a result of the unprecedented eruption, about 200 to 300
people died. This number is comparatively small relative to the number of people affected,
considering the violence caused by the explosions. The minimal casualties was a result of
the early warning system and evacuation enforced by the government within the area.
Public information dissemination on the risk of eruption prior and during the early warning
also helped in the cooperation and response of the affected people.

Lesson 4
Ballistic Projectiles and Tephra Falls

Tephras are fragments of volcanic material that are ejected into the atmosphere from the
eruption of a volcano. They are differentiated based on the size of the ejected fragment.
They can be classified as ash, if it is less than 2mm, lapilli if it is 2-64mm, or blocks and
bombs if they are greater than 64 mm in size.

Tephras ejected into the atmosphere will fall back into the earth’s surface. Large tephras
that leave the volcanic vent with force and trajectory are called ballistic projectiles.
These can have speeds of up to hundreds of meters per second and affect areas that are
usually within the five-kilometer radius of the volcanic vent.
On the other hand, tephra falls occur as a result of tephra being spewed out by a volcano
initially hovering and riding over the prevailing wind direction before eventually falling into
the earth’s surface. They can hang in the atmosphere for long periods of time before
falling, especially the ash particles that can be carried even up to thousands of kilometers.

Tephra fall deposits typically become thinner and finer as tephra goes farther from the
volcanic eruption source. Tephra falls are also interchanged with ash falls because notable
tephra falls are typically made up of ash since tephra, that is greater than a millimeter in
size, typically falls thirty minutes after.

Remember!
● The distribution of tephra falls is dependent on the prevailing wind direction
while ballistic projectiles are nominally affected by wind direction.
● Blocks and bombs are categorized into one because they have similar size
categories. However, blocks are angular in shape while bombs are rounded.

Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Tephra falls have the widest range of effects amongst all other volcano hazards. They can
spread over a wide range of area depending on how large the volcanic eruption is and how
the prevailing winds move them. Ballistic projectiles, on the other hand, have effects that
are in relative proximity to the volcanic source. This is because the projectiles are too
heavy to be carried by prevailing winds. Their movement is mainly due to the initial force
of the eruption of the volcano.
Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles can destroy properties and endanger lives because of
the force of impact as they fall into the Earth’s surface. Fragment size decreases as you
move farther from the source which lessens the effect of impact hazard. Burial can also
occur if large amounts of tephra are concentrated over a certain area. Accumulated ash
also gets heavier when mixed with water. This can collapse roofs, destroy electrical lines,
and destroy agriculture. Furthermore, tephra falls can carry harmful and poisonous
particles and gases. Accumulated tephra can also block the drainage, sewage, pumping
stations, and other critical facilities. Suspended ash can also hinder aircrafts from flying
over the vicinity.

Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Unlike most volcanic hazards, some tephra fall hazards can be practically mitigated to
minimize its destructive effects without the need for evacuation. Clearing the ash fall
buildup over a certain structure before it accumulates, can lessen the risk of failure of
the structure. Roofs over a structure can be designed to prevent ash buildup.
Strengthening of structures can also be done to lessen the effect of projectile impacts
and withstand the load of ash buildup. Humans can also wear masks or respiratory
apparatuses that can significantly reduce the inhalation of ash and poisonous gases.

Examples of Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Volcanic ashes of Eyjafjallajökull: Iceland’s volcano, Eyjafjallajökull, that erupted in 2010,
spewed ash into the atmosphere. This was a minor eruption compared to its other previous
activities, but the massive amounts of ash it released resulted in the disruptions of traffic
in large parts of Europe. The effect lasted for weeks as thousands of commercial flights
were canceled causing hundreds of thousands of travelers to be stranded, and millions of
dollars lost by different countries due to its economic effects.
Lesson 5
Lahars

Lahar is an Indonesian term for mudflow that has been globally used as a term for a
specific type of mudflow. Lahar is created when tephras mix with water and form a slurry.
It flows along the slopes of a topography. As they move downhill, lahar incorporates other
materials along its path which can result in its volume growing more than ten times its
initial size. Lahar can form during the eruption event, called the primary lahar, or years
after deposition of tephra called the secondary lahar.
Primary lahar can form when pyroclastic flows occur along areas where bodies of water
such as streams and rivers are present. The pyroclastic flow is eventually converted into
lahar as the pyroclastic flow engulfs more water as it flows down the slope. Crater lake
volcanoes can also be a source of primary lahars. When crater lake volcanoes rupture due
to a volcanic eruption, the volcanic material mixes with the lake water and flows down from
the source of the rupture. A particular type of primary lahar which typically occurs in
Iceland and the Andes region is called Jökulhlaups or glacier bursts. They are formed
when glaciers melt as hot lava, gas, or pyroclastic materials are ejected out of a volcanic
vent. The resulting melt, along with the volcanic materials and frozen particles in the melt,
forms to become Jökulhlaups.

Secondary lahar can form after an eruption event. Secondary lahar flows are generated
when rain falls on unconsolidated tephra and mobilizes them downslope collecting more
tephra as it progresses downward. Mass failure or overtopping of dams formed by lava
flows, lahar, pyroclastic flows, or crater rims can also cause secondary lahars.

Remember!
● Lahar is a type of mudflow, having a specific source of material that comes from
volcanoes.
● Lahars can occur with or without any volcanic activity.

Negative Impacts of Lahar

Lahar flows have destroyed cities and killed countless lives in the past decades. Their
destructive nature can be attributed to their speed of flow, the extent of reach,
composition, and difficulty of prediction. Lahar can travel quickly especially on steep slopes
where its speed can reach more than 20 km/h. Its speed decreases as it flows into gentler
low-lying areas.

The force of impact from lahar, which contains varying materials of different sizes, can
destroy virtually anything in its path. The reach of lahar flows defines their hazard. Some
can reach up to more than 50 km from their source when confined to narrow pathways.
Lahar is hyperconcentrated nearer its source. This means that it has a lot more material
to water ratio, which decreases as lahar flows farther away from the source.

Hyperconcentrated lahar destroys structures and agriculture through erosion. The diluted
lahar, usually found farther from the source, can dry out and become as hard as concrete
which becomes dangerous when it fills and buries an urbanized or agricultural area. A
freshly
deposited lahar can also act like quicksand that hampers immediate search and rescue
efforts.

Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Lahar

Lahar flows cannot be predicted easily because they can occur with or without any volcanic
activity. Their exact source and magnitude are also challenging to pinpoint before its onset
but there are still ways to lessen the risks of lahar.

Lahar hazard mitigation begins with education of the affected community and the local
government. This increases their awareness and interest in the disaster that can be
brought about by the lahar. Depending on the gathered information on the community and
gained knowledge on the potential lahar hazard within the region, specific risk reduction
measures can be designed.

Basic Risk Reduction Strategies

Four basic risk reduction strategies can be done within a particular area depending on its
practicality. Hazard avoidance, hazard modification, hazard warning, and hazard response
and recovery planning are risk reduction options that can be used by communities.

Hazard avoidance, or a complete ban of development in a lahar prone area, is the most
effective way to reduce risk. If this cannot be avoided due to reasons such as attachment
to the area, livelihood concerns, and lack of alternative settlements, hazard modification
can be done. This is accomplished by engineering structures to protect the affected area
by diverting or blocking lahars, or weakening, or preventing lahar flows altogether.

If hazard modification cannot be done due to some constraints such as budget or

impracticality, a hazard warning can be an alternative. Hazard warnings help in
disseminating information to the community of an impending lahar flow before it reaches
and affects the community. At times, hazard warnings for lahar are difficult especially in
areas near the lahar source. There will only be a limited time between the warning and the
actual lahar flow.

Unlike the first three strategies, hazard response and recovery planning focuses on the
response to the lahar hazard after it has occurred. This strategy plans on the rescue of
those affected by the hazard, how they will be taken care of, and the identification of
long-term plans for the affected community.

Examples of Impacts of Lahar

Lahar depositing years after Mt. Pinatubo eruption of 1991: When Mt. Pinatubo erupted in
1991, typhoon Diding also passed through Luzon causing heavy rainfall in areas also
affected by the eruption. Lahar formed within hours following the explosion of Mt.
Pinatubo, as heavy rainfall mixed with the fresh tephra ejected by the volcano. Lahar
flows reached speeds of more than 80 km/h on the highlands and slowed to about 40 km/h
as they reached the lowlands.

Lahar continued to form even years after its initial occurrence, flowing down along river
systems and finding their way through populated areas around Mt. Pinatubo. Significant
damages were inflicted on these occurrences as lahar ran down and buried everything that
came across its path. The lahar has taken many lives, destroyed buildings and
infrastructures, and hampered economic activities.

Hazard warnings have been put in place to evacuate the locals before the hazard
occurrence which resulted in minimal casualties during the lahar events. Response and
recovery after lahar events were also done to tackle different concerns such as
resettlement, livelihood, and repairs of infrastructure. The various impacts of lahar on the
communities surrounding Mt. Pinatubo have resulted into a more comprehensive program in
reducing risks on succeeding hazards.

Primary lahar and Jökulhlaups from Mount St. Helens in 1980: The violent eruption of Mt.
St. Helens in 1980 was considered as the worst volcanic disaster in the United States. One
of the hazards of the eruption resulted in an advancing pyroclastic flow that had mixed
with the North Fork Toutle River. The hot material erupted from the volcanic vent also
resulted in the melting of the mountain glaciers and overlying snow. These produced
massive lahar that grew bigger as it engulfed more materials while progressing to the
lowlands. More than 200 homes and 300 kilometers of road system were damaged as a
result of this.

Unit 6

Lesson 1
Ground Subsidence

Sinkhole
● the downward movement of earth’s crust towards its gravity.
● It is the sinking of the ground surface above an underground void or depression.
● Sinkholes could be due to the collapse of an old mine or cave, and deterioration or
compaction of soils and construction materials used for filling (Pittsburgh
Geological Society).
● type of ground subsidence that occurs because the rock below the land is either
limestone, carbonated rocks, or salt bed that was continuously penetrated by
circulating groundwater for a long time. Due to this long time exposure to
groundwater, these types of rocks can be dissolved and eventually create spaces or
caverns underground. Once these underground spaces are present, sudden collapse
of the land surface is inevitable.
Ground subsidence
● occurs in urban cities, in urban settlements, and in mining areas
● many scientists consider it as anthropogenic in nature
● ground subsidence, particularly sinkholes, are the result of too much groundwater
extraction in urban settlements. The overexploitation of aquifers in urban
settlements and adjacent areas is a worldwide concern. Big cities with millions of
people inhabiting these areas need water for daily use— for drinking, bathing,
cooking, laundry, and other related activities that need water.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS)
 ● defined ground subsidence as the loss of surface elevation due to the removal of
subsurface support.
● There are diverse forms of ground failure or subsidence, many are small and local in
nature, while others are broad and can affect a wider area of concern.
Tomoyuki Okada (2017)
● noted from his researches in the Japanese deltas that the same rate or amount of
decrease in groundwater level is equal to the land subsidence rate in areas affected
by it.
International Hydrological Programme of United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
● land surface sinking occurs in many parts of the world, particularly in
densely-populated, deltaic regions, causing extremely expensive damage.
Ground subsidence
● resulted from natural causes, such as tectonic motion and sea level rise.
● can also come from man-induced causes such as the heavy withdrawal of
groundwater and geothermal fluids, oil, and gas; other mining activities such as
extraction of coal, sulfur, gold, and other solids; and underground construction
(tunneling).
● other mixed causes of subsidence such as the hydro-compaction of loosely
deposited sediments; oxidation, and shrinkage of organic deposits; or the
development of sinkholes in karstic terrains.
Formation of Sinkholes
● form in areas that geologists call karst terrains.
● Areas that are described as karst terrain have bedrocks that are typically made up
of limestone, dolomite, or gypsum. Those types of rocks can be dissolved by
groundwater over time. The type of bedrock in karst terrains result in features like
springs, caves, and sinkholes.
Types of Sinkholes

Type Description

Dissolution ● Dissolution is the process of dissolving of rocks, often by water

sinkholes or acid. forms from dissolution of the limestone or dolomite.
● happens intensively where water first comes in contact with the
rock surface.
● also occur where water passes through pre-existing openings,
crevices or fractures in rocks.

Cover-subsiden ● In areas where the covering sediments contain sand and are
ce sinkholes permeable, cover-subsidence sinkholes can eventually develop.
● In areas where the covering sediments contain more clay,
cover-subsidence sinkholes may still develop but may be
undetected for longer periods of time.

Cover-collapse ● occur where the covering sediments contain a significant amount

sinkholes of clay.
● These sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours)
and cause catastrophic damages. Over time, surface drainage,
erosion, and deposition of sinkhole will develop into a shallower
bowl-shaped depression.
Human-induced ● Some sinkholes are associated with human activities like
sinkholes groundwater pumping, construction, and land development
practices.
● Sinkholes can also form when water diversion systems are
developed for human activities. When the land is changed due to
industrial activities, the weight of new materials placed on the
surface can cause the collapse of the supporting material
underground, causing a sinkhole.

Some Causes of Ground Subsidence

Ground subsidence can be a result of natural processes or as effects of human
activities. Aside from dissolution and diversion of natural water drainage patterns,
dewatering or overdraining of organic soil and peat can shrink the materials causing
the ground to subside.

Compaction of soil due to natural or man-induced processes will displace air spaces,
making the soil impenetrable and more susceptible to subsidence. Subterranean
mining or underground mining activities including extraction of fluid minerals
displaces numerous materials under the surface. A possible effect of climate change,
thawing permafrost erodes not only water but other solid materials that are part of
its composition. Thawing permafrost shrinks the land and affects human and natural
installations above its surface.

Effects of Ground Subsidence

Ground subsidence can impact agricultural lands, industrial processes, and
infrastructure. Farm lands, irrigation systems, and groundwater wells can be damaged
or destroyed. Infrastructures that are on subsiding ground can also be damaged or
destroyed. Mining areas tunnels and surrounding areas can collapse. Moreover, sudden
subsidence can cause injuries and fatalities.

Some Tips to Reduce Occurrence of Ground Subsidence

Human activities that can result in ground subsidence can be reduced if there is
proper and planned urbanization. This means that when the government plans to build
infrastructures, critical facilities, and transportation systems, risk of ground
subsidence should be included as part of the major considerations.

Some examples that show consideration of ground subsidence in urban planning

include:
● finding alternative sources to groundwater;
● avoiding building infrastructure in certain distances near land fissures;
● routing drainage away from fissures; and
● prohibiting residential zones in or near fissure areas or types of ground that have
high subsidence susceptibility.

As individuals, everyone is encouraged to practice water conservation so as not to

contribute to ground subsidence that may result from overdraining underground
water sources.
REMEMBER!
Heavy withdrawal of groundwater and geothermal fluids, oil, and gas; other mining
activities such as extraction of coal, sulfur, gold, and other solids; and underground
construction can result in ground subsidence.

Lesson 2
Rainfall-Induced Landslide

Landslides
● occur anytime, anywhere.
● also caused the displacement of thousands of people around the world.

United States Geological Survey or USGS

● defines landslide as the “downslope movement of soil, rock, and organic materials
under the effects of gravity and also the landform that results from such
movement.”

Major Types of Landslides

Landslides can be categorized based on the type of materials and the movement
involved.

1. Fall: A fall begins when the material on cliffs or steep slopes lose support or
becomes fractured from the main rock. The materials which can be rock and soil of
different sizes subsequently descend by falling, bouncing, or rolling; until they reach
lower or flatter surfaces.

2. Topple: A topple happens when a block of material is detached from a steep slope
such as a cliff, and moves forward and downward around a point of axis (imagine a
rotating motion). Toppling can occur because of the weight of the material or due to
the cracks in the mass created by water or ice. Some topples can also end up as falls
or slides.

3. Slide: A slide occurs when the detached mass of materials such as rocks, soil, and
sometimes organic matter move along a downward sloping surface. The volume of
material increases as the mass moves downwards away from its origin. Rotational
landslide or slump is when the displaced mass is moving along a concave surface.
Translational landslide when the mass that slides down and outward along a downward
sloping surface.

● 4. Flows: A flow occurs when materials from (usually) gentle slopes are detached
and flow like a viscous liquid along a surface.

● Debris Flow: This is a rapid movement of slurry that is informally called mudslide is
formed from water that combines materials such as rocks and soil and sometimes
organic matter. Lahar flow is also known as volcanic mudflow. Lahar flows originate
on the slopes of volcanoes and are a type of debris flow. Lahar mobilizes the loose
 accumulations of tephra (the airborne solids erupted from the volcano) and related
debris.

● Debris avalanche: This occurs from sudden collapse of unstable slopes and the
fragmented debris rapidly moves downwards along the slope. In some cases, snow
and ice will contribute to the movement and if a significant amount of water is
present, it can become a debris flow.

● Earth Flow: When the flow has a high amount of silt or clay, the flow becomes a
more viscous earth flow. Earth flows can range from very slow and almost
imperceptible creep to rapid and catastrophic.

Factors that Influence Landslide Development

Geological factors that influence landslide include properties of rock and soil that
renders them weak or sensitive to movement. For instance, weathered and fractured
materials are susceptible to landslide as they are the ones that will be most easily
detached from the main material. Permeability and stiffness of materials can also be
factors that will make chunks of land susceptible to landslide. Morphological factors
that influence landslide include the shape of land and its slope, tectonic and volcanic
activities, erosion and deposition, water, the amount of vegetation on the rock and
soil surface as well as the boundaries of the land mass involved.

Human factors that affect landslide include development activities that modify the
geological and morphological factors of the land. Mining, excavation, building of roads
and dams, irrigation, and deforestation are some of the human activities that
increase the susceptibility of areas to landslides.

Causes of Rainfall-Induced Landslides

The three main natural causes of landslide are water (rainfall), seismic, and volcanic
activity. Of those three, water due to rainfall has become an increasing trend since
1980 (UNESCAP & UNISDR, 2002). Rainfall plays an essential role in the development
of landslides. Slope saturation of water is one of the leading causes of landslides in
the world. Water adds disturbances to steep terrain and weak geological
characteristics of certain slopes. When torrential rains hit the mountainous area, it
loosens soil particles and lessens the friction of the soil.

Debris flow and flooding occur simultaneously during landslides. The flooding may
create a landslide due to the blocking of valleys and stream channels. These
blockages hold up a large deposit of water and when it collapses, flash floods will
occur. The building of solid debris due to landslides may also affect the development
of stream diversion and eventually creates localized erosion in other areas.

Landslides occur due to natural and human-made causes. The rise in population brings
a lot of factors that can contribute to landslides. New development due to
urbanization and concentration of rising population may affect the weakening of once
stable slopes. The building of residential and commercial structures along the slopes,
and its corresponding changes like drainage system, change in the surface
environment, and expansion of roads can make slopes vulnerable to landslides.
Infamous Incidences of Landslides in the Philippines
On August 3, 1999, Cherry Hills Subdivision in Antipolo City in Rizal province
suffered from a rainfall-induced landslide due to a week-long heavy rain. The amount
of accumulated rainfall in the area was equivalent to a normal month-long rainfall in
August. More than fifty people were instantly killed when the landslide occurred.
About four hundred houses were destroyed and buried.

Another devastating landslide that occurred in the Philippines happened on February

17, 2006 at Barangay Guinsaugon, St. Bernard, Southern Leyte. After a ten-day
torrential rain, a massive rock slide – debris avalanche buried the whole village and
killed more than one thousand people.

REMEMBER!
Saturation of water in slopes is one of the leading causes of landslides in the
world. When torrential rains hit the sloping areas, it loosens soil particles and
lessens the friction of the soil.

Signs of an Impending Landslide

Landslides can be predicted to some extent, as there are observable signs of its
probable occurrences. Some changes in the physical aspects of an area, be it part of
man-made structures or not, can be monitored and treated as warning signs of a
possible landslide. For instance, if there are cracks or bulges on concrete or paved
roads and sidewalks, broken water pipes and other underground fixtures, are some
issues that have been associated with major landslide events. Movement of normally
fixed structures such as fences, telephone posts and other structures that are on
the ground, can also be treated as signs of a possible landslide.

Lesson 3
Coastal erosion

Coastal erosion involves the breakdown and removal of materials from the coastline due to
wave action, tidal currents, and human activities. Coastal erosion is not just a concern in
the Philippines, but it is also a global issue because 15 square-kilometers of shores are
retreating annually due to sea level rising and global warming. Human interventions and
developments along the shores contribute to the increase of the occurrence of coastal
erosion.

In real estate, lots located along the shores are one of the considered prime areas. Many
houses were built along the shores without proper preventive and mitigation measures to
address disaster risks brought by coastal erosion.

Another key factor is the construction or development of tourism infrastructure along the
shores such as hotels, cabins, and other amenities that contribute to the destruction of
coastal zones. In January 2018, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) was given an order to clean-up and rehabilitate Boracay island, in Malaybalay,
Aklan. The particular focus of the said order was the coastal areas of the island and
address improper sewerage systems of many establishments in the island.

Coastal erosion can be classified either as natural or anthropogenic, temporary or

long-term.
Temporary erosion is reversed by a period of accretion.
Episodic coastal erosion occurs when strong storms leave serious effects on sandy shores.
Long-term erosion results from a net retreat or recession of the coastline. The sea level
rise makes a long-term and permanent retreat of the coast.

Types of Coastal Erosion

Mechanical Erosion of Waves: The mechanical action of waves is the main erosion factor in
coastal environment, through high energy waves or storms waves. In low energy conditions,
the erosive action of waves is reduced; however, they still contribute significantly to the
removal of weathered material. Apart from removing loose material through waves, two
main results are the abrasion of rock surfaces and the pressure fluctuations induced on
rocks by the waves.

Weathering: Coastal cliffs and intertidal coastal platforms are exposed to alternating
wetting and drying of salt spray, wave swash, tides, and rain. Subsequently, they constitute
suitable environment for many physical and chemical processes of weathering.

Bioerosion: Bioerosion is the removal of rocks and minerals through the actions of
organisms. The rocks and sediments in tropical regions are more susceptible to coastal
erosion, due to the large biodiversity in its marine ecosystems. Marine organisms use rocks
for shelter and even as a source of their own materials. For instance, limestone substrates
are involved in the biochemical and biophysical processes in corals and shelled animals. A
huge factor that influences the rate of bioerosion is the spatial distribution of marine
organisms along the rock surface, which is largely controlled by the available moisture that
largely depends on tidal currents and wave action.

Mass movements: The steep slopes of rocky shores are unstable and are prone to mass
movements depending on the properties and structure of its rock composition.

Factors that Influence Coastal Erosion

Coastal erosion is a process that is affected by natural and man-made factors.
The Processes
Coastal Erosion and accretion; A complex process
 A graphical representation that shows how coastal erosion is formed.

Climate: Climate defines the weather conditions of an area and affects physical phenomena
of coastal zones such as waves, underwater currents, and storm surges. Wind regime is
related to wind waves and coastal currents. The stronger the wind, the higher the wave
height. Higher waves bring more erosive actions.

Lithology of rocks: The hardness of the rock, its resistance to subaerial and marine
erosion affect its susceptibility or resistance to weathering and erosion. A rock’s exposure
to wave activities can result to the removal of base materials from the shores.

Global sea level rise: It is a natural phenomenon but can be amplified by human-induced
global warming due to human development activities that contribute to making the faster
warming of the earth. Global warming affects the rise in sea level and contributes to the
thermal expansion of ocean water, and ice sheet melting in the Polar Regions. This
unprecedented sea level rise poses a threat to coastal communities and countries around
the world. The main three effects of this factor are coastal erosion, flooding of wetlands,
and salt contamination of coastal aquifers.

Man-made interventions: Coastal areas are a strategic location for human activities. They
can be used for military bases, recreational spaces, tourist destinations, and a real estate
prime land. Due to these, coastal areas become vulnerable to the effects of these human
developments. Another noteworthy human activity is sand extraction that is harmful to
coastal areas and its inhabitants.

REMEMBER!
● Coastal erosion can be natural or anthropogenic, temporary or long-term.
● Human interventions and developments along the shores increase the occurrence
of coastal erosion.

Lesson 4
Bolide Impact
Near-Earth objects (NEOs) are used to define the rocky or metallic asteroids and icy
comets found between Jupiter and Mars. These near-earth objects were made from the
same materials that made up the planet in the solar system, planetesimals. These materials
attract each other, but there are two results from this attraction, the formation of
planets and destruction, that make up clouds of fragments. The area where these
fragments are located is called the asteroid belt, and these fragments are orbiting the
sun. Due to some disturbances, these near-earth objects, also called Mars-crossers, can
move directly to the inner solar system and could hit or impact one of the inner planets.
Simply speaking, these objects may hit the earth.

Bolide is a generic term used to define any celestial bodies entering the earth surface,
creating a fireball. Superbolide is the term used to describe a relatively larger bolide.
Once a bolide hits the earth, it could explode upon impact or create a crater formation.
Bolide impact depends on the features of the foreign body that enters the earth, like its
size, composition, density, and its ability to survive its entry to Earth. A stony bolide can
flatten the impact site without leaving a crater formation while a metallic bolide can
create a vast crater.There are bolides that enter the Earth’s surface every day. Some
bolides enter during the day, and the view of them are masked by the bright sunlight;
others fall in the vast uninhabited land and vast oceans. It is estimated that there are
eleven thousand (11, 000) bolides in the solar system and anytime, one of those may enter
our atmosphere.

Bolide impact is the only natural hazard that can instantly kill billions of people or destroy
human properties and economic structures that could endanger the survival of civilization.
Its impacts affect the geological, geophysical, and geochemical aspects of its landing area.
Superbolides can have cratering formation impacts. In natural history, superbolides
increased the incidence of climate change and sea level change. Intense tectonic activities,
earthquakes, and increased volcanism are also linked to bolide impacts. These
environmental impacts of bolides can trigger global mass extinction and global
environmental dangers.

Human beings, livelihood, and the environment are all exposed to this type of hazard.
Though there are satellites and space telescopes that could detect a potential asteroid or
comet that could hit the earth, there are still a few ways on how humans can deflect or
redirect the course of a potential bolide impact. Harris, A.W., et al (2015) listed the
general approach to dealing with the NEO hazard such as to search the skies for NEOs
that may strike Earth. We may carry out a deflection spacecraft mission if there is
sufficient time, and there is a high probability of damaging impact or evacuate or
otherwise prepare to mitigate the effects of an impact.

Examples of Deflection Techniques

Harris, A.W., et al. (2015) suggested several ways for Earth to avoid or mitigate the
impact of bolide collision. Larger NEOs such as asteroids are hoped to be avoided by
either reducing its size, its speed, or changing its direction to avoid collision completely.
Technologies suggested that can meet those objectives include using a laser beam to move
the NEO; using large lenses or mirrors to refocus sun’s energy on an NEO, and using
another object to collide with an NEO to deflect it or change its velocity.
Experimental missions are being done by space agencies to prepare for bolide hazards.
NASA Deep Impact mission successfully caused an impactor to collide with the nucleus of
Comet 9P/Tempel 1 on July 4, 2005. Due to the large mass of the 6-km-diameter nucleus,
and non-gravitational forces acting on it, it was not possible to measure a change in the
comet’s trajectory resulting from the impact. Nevertheless, the mission successfully
impacted its target and highlighted the complex autonomous guidance necessary to do so.

REMEMBER!
● Due to some disturbances, NEO can move to the inner solar system and impact one
of the inner planets such as Earth.
● The whole planet is exposed to bolide hazards.