SRIMAD ANDAVAN ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS), T.V.KOVIL, TRICHY-5

FOUNDATION COURSE – III

DISASTER MANAGEMENT (U19FCC503TA1)
__________________________________________________________________________

UNIT - 1
DISASTER

Disruption on a massive scale, either natural or man-made, occurring in short or long

periods is termed as Disaster. Disaster management in India has been an important
point of discussion owing to frequent natural disasters ranging from earthquakes,
floods, drought, etc..
Loss of life and property due to these disasters have been steadily mounting
throughout the world due to inadequate technology to combat disasters, rise in
population, climate change, and continuing ecological degradation. The global efforts
to manage disasters have proven to be insufficient to match the frequency and
magnitude of natural disasters.

What is a Disaster?
 A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes that leads to sudden
disruption of normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent
that available social and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope.
 It is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely outside
human control. It strikes quickly with little or no warning and requires major efforts
in providing statutory emergency service.

Classification of Disasters
 Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As
per severity, disasters are classified as minor or major (in impact).
 Natural disasters are sudden ecological disruptions or threats that exceed
the adjustment capacity of the affected community and require external assistance.

o Natural disasters can be broadly classified into categories

including geophysical such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions; hydrological such as floods; meteorological such as
hurricanes; climatological such as heat and cold waves and droughts;
and biological such as epidemics.
 Man-made disasters can include hazardous material spills, fires,
groundwater contamination, transportation accidents, structure failures,
mining accidents, explosions and acts of terrorism.

Causes for Occurrence of Disaster

 Environmental degradation: Removal of trees and forest cover from a
watershed area have caused, soil erosion, expansion of flood plain area in upper and
middle course of rivers and groundwater depletion.
 Developmental process: Exploitation of land use, development of
infrastructure, rapid urbanization and technological development have caused
increasing pressure over the natural resources.
 Political issues: War, nuclear power aspirations, fight between countries to
become super power and conquering land, sea and skies. These have resulted into
wide range of disaster events such as Hiroshima nuclear explosion, Syrian civil war,
growing militarisation of oceans and outer space.
 Industrialization: This has resulted into warming of earth and frequency of
extreme weather events has also increased.

Impacts of Disaster
 Disaster impacts individuals physically (through loss of life, injury, health,
disability) as well as psychologically.
 Disaster results in huge economic loss due to destruction of property, human
settlements and infrastructure etc.
 Disaster can alter the natural environment, loss of habitat to many plants and
animals and cause ecological stress that can result in biodiversity loss.
 After natural disasters, food and other natural resources like water often
becomes scarce resulting into food and water scarcity.
 The disaster results in displacement of people, and displaced population often
face several challenges in new settlements, in this process poorer becomes more
poor.
 Disaster increases the level of vulnerability and hence multiply the effects of
disaster.

Vulnerability Profile of India

 India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of disasters. Around
59% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity.
 About 12% (over 40 million hectares) of its land is prone to floods and river
erosion.
 Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones
and tsunamis.
  68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and, the hilly areas are at
risk from landslides and avalanches.
 Moreover, India is also vulnerable to chemical, biological, radiological and
nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and other man-made disasters.
 Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities
related to changing demographics and socio-economic conditions, unplanned
urbanization, development within high-risk zones, environmental degradation,
climate change, geological hazards, epidemics and pandemics.
 Clearly, all these contribute to a situation where disasters seriously threaten
India’s economy, its population and sustainable development.

(VULNERABILITY+ HAZARD ) / CAPACITY = DISASTER

Natural disasters and armed conflict have marked human existence throughout
history and have always caused peaks in mortality and morbidity. This article
examines the advances in the humanitarian response to public health over the past
fifty years and the challenges currently faced in managing natural disasters and
armed conflict [4].
Hazard is defined as a threat that can potentially cause damage to people, property, or
other elements. ... While hazards are a potential threat to populations and the
environment, risk is the interplay between hazard and vulnerability.
Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: poverty, for example, may mean that
housing is unable to withstand an earthquake or a hurricane, or lack of preparedness
may result in a slower response to a disaster, leading to greater loss of life or
prolonged suffering. A hazard is a situation where there is a threat to life, health,
environment or property. ... These hazards are termed as disasters when they cause
widespread destruction of property and human lives. Once a hazard becomes active
and is no longer just a threat, it becomes a disaster.
A Hazard is a threat and future source of danger and has potential to cause harm to
man, human activities, properties and environment in future. The earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, cyclones, floods, landslides, accidents and other such events are
examples of natural or manmade hazards. The hazards represent the “potential” to
harm rather than the “harm” itself. They remain hazards until they really lead to the
harms. Once they cause injury or loss of human / animal lives, damage to property,
disruption in socio-economic activities or environmental degradations; they become
disasters.

How a Hazard turns into Disaster?

 The environmental events themselves are no hazard. The environmental events

become hazards once they threaten to affect society and/or the environment
 adversely. For instance, a volcanic eruption which does not affect human beings is a
natural phenomenon but not a natural hazard. If the same volcanic eruption occurs in a
populated area, it becomes a hazard.
 When a hazardous event causes unacceptably large numbers of fatalities and/or
overwhelming property damage; it becomes a disaster. In areas where there are no
human interests, natural phenomena do not constitute hazards nor do they result in
disasters.

Risk from Hazards

Risk refers to the measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event. The level of
risk depends upon the nature of the hazard, vulnerability of the people/ area, economic
value of the affected elements etc. An area or community is said to be at risk when it
is exposed to the hazards and is likely to be adversely affected by these hazards.

Types of Hazards

Hewitt and Burton (1971) classified the hazards into the following five heads viz.
Atmospheric (Single element), Atmospheric (Combined elements / events),
Hydrologic, Geologic, Biologic and Technologic.

Impact of Human Activities on Hazards

There are two sides of the coin. On one side, the human activities can cause or
aggravate the destructive effects of natural phenomena. On the other side, the human
activities can also eliminate or reduce the destructive effects. The humans can do little
as far as intensity of most natural phenomena is concerned. However, humans have an
important role to play in ensuring that the natural events don’t turn to natural disasters
on their own. The human activities can increase the frequency and severity of the
natural hazards. For instance, removing the toe of a landslide may result in movement
of earth and burying that settlement. Similarly, the human settlements nearby a
volcano to make use of fertile lava soil are hazardous. Similarly, destruction of the
forests has led to desertification, which by its very definition is called a manmade
natural (or quasi-natural) hazard.
Immutable Events

For some types of hazards the actual dimensions of the occurrence may be altered if
appropriate measures are taken; these are called controllable events. For others, no
known technology can effectively alter the occurrence itself. Such events are
called immutable events. For example, construction of levees on both sides of a
stream can reduce the extent of inundations, but nothing can moderate the ground
shaking produced by an earthquake.
Primary and Secondary Hazards

The secondary hazards follow as a result of other (primary) hazard events. For
instance, the Hazards secondary to an earthquake include building collapse, dam
failure, Fire, Hazardous material spill, landslide, soil liquefaction, Tsunami etc.
Chronic hazards

Chronic hazards refer to a group of hazards that do not stem from one event but arise
from continuous conditions (e.g., famine, resource degradation, pollution, and large-
scale toxic contamination), which accumulate over time.

The occurrence of a disaster depends on two factors: hazard: the probability of

occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon, vulnerability: the degree of loss
resulting from the occurrence of the phenomenon.

TYPES OF VULNERABILITIES- PHYSICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMIC,

ATTITUDINALVULNERABILITY

A set of prevailing conditions which adversely affect the community’s ability to

prevent, mitigate, prepare for or respond to a hazard. Absence of coping strategies is
also a part of vulnerability and has to be considered in vulnerability assessment e.g.
living in hazard prone locations like near to a sea or river, above the fault lines, at the
base of a mountain etc.

Physical Vulnerability
The physical vulnerability of an area also depends on its geographic proximity to the
source and origin of the disasters e.g. if an area lies near the coast lines, fault lines,
unstable hills etc. it makes the area more vulnerable to disasters as compared to an
area that is far away from the origin of the disaster. Physical vulnerability includes
the difficulty in access to water resources, means of communications, hospitals, police
stations, fire brigades, roads, bridges and exits of a building or/an area, in case of
disasters. Furthermore, the lack of proper planning and implementation in construction
of residential and commercial buildings results in buildings that are weaker and
vulnerable in earthquakes, floods, landslides and other hazards.

Economic Vulnerability

Economic vulnerability of a community can be assessed by determining how varied its

sources of income are, the ease of access and control over means of production (e.g.
farmland, livestock, irrigation, capital etc.), adequacy of economic fall back
mechanisms and the availability of natural resources in the area.

Social Vulnerability
A socially vulnerable community has weak family structures, lack of leadership for
decision making and conflict resolution, unequal participation in decision
making, weak or no community organizations, and the one in which people
are discriminated on racial, ethnic, linguistic or religious basis. Other social factors
such as culture, tradition, religion,local norms and values, economic standard,
and political accountability also play a vital role determining the social vulnerability
of a community

Social vulnerability to natural phenomena is greatest among the poorest people in

developing countries owing to a lack of information and resources with which to take
the appropriate measures. Within this group, children, women and the elderly are
considered to be the most vulnerable. To reduce social vulnerability, all of the above
factors must be addressed but this requires knowledge and understanding of the local
conditions, which can – in most cases – only be provided by local actors.

Attitudinal Vulnerability

A community which has negative attitude towards change and lacks initiative in life
resultantly become more and more dependent on external support. They cannot act
independently. Their sources of livelihood do not have variety, lacks entrepreneurship
and do not possess the concept of collectivism. This brings about disunity and
individualism in the society. Thus, they become victims of conflicts, hopelessness and
pessimism which reduces their capacity of coping with a disaster.

Resilience is related to 'capacity' and 'coping capacity' and often understood as

follows: Resilience: the ability to flourish in the face of disaster risk. Capacity:
strengths and resources available to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from
disasters. Coping capacity: the ability to face and manage disasters.
Disaster resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organisations and states
to adapt to and recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long-
term prospects for development. According to the Hyogo Framework for Action
(UNISDR, 2005), disaster resilience is determined by the degree to which individuals,
communities and public and private organisations are capable of organising
themselves to learn from past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at
international, regional, national and local levels.

Definitions of disaster resilience: ‘the ability of countries, communities and

households to manage change, by maintaining or transforming living standards
in the face of shocks or stresses – such as earthquakes, drought or violent conflict
– without compromising their long-term prospects’.

Disaster resilience is part of the broader concept of resilience – ‘the ability of

individuals, communities and states and their institutions to absorb and recover from
shocks, whilst positively adapting and transforming their structures and means for
living in the face of long-term changes and uncertainty’ (OECD, 2013b, 1).
In conceptual terms, vulnerability and disaster resilience are closely related. Some
authors see vulnerability as the opposite of disaster resilience, while others view
vulnerability as a risk factor and disaster resilience as the capacity to respond
(Manyena, 2006, 436, 439-443).
In practice, DFID’s framework (DFID, 2011a, 6-7; diagram below) depicts the core
elements of disaster resilience as follows:

 Context: Whose resilience is being built – such as a social group, socio-

economic or political system, environmental context or institution.
 Disturbance: What shocks (sudden events like conflict or disasters) and/or
stresses (long-term trends like resource degradation, urbanisation, or climate
change) the group aims to be resilient to.
 Capacity to respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock
or stress depends on exposure (the magnitude of the shock or stress),
sensitivity (the degree to which a system will be affected by, or will respond
to, a given shock or stress), and adaptive capacity (how well it can adjust to a
disturbance or moderate damage, take advantage of opportunities and cope
with the consequences of a transformation).
 Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including: bounce back better,
where capacities are enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is more
able to deal with future shocks and stresses; bounce back, where pre-existing
conditions prevail; or recover, but worse than before, meaning capacities are
 reduced. In the worst-case scenario, the system collapses, leading to a
catastrophic reduction in capacity to cope with the future.

Disaster resilience has been described as both an outcome and a process. Practices
focused on outcome have tended to adopt top-down reactive approaches which can
favour the status quo and take attention away from inequalities resulting from
insecurity and disaster. As a process, building disaster resilience involves supporting
the capacity of individuals, communities and states to adapt through assets and
resources relevant to their context. For some, this implies enhancing peoples’ rights
and addressing socio-economic, gender and environmental inequalities that exacerbate
vulnerability.

TYPES OF DISASTER
NATURAL DISASTERS

According to the International Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent

Societies Natural Disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused
either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health
and secondary impacts causing further death and suffering. These disasters can
be [5]:

 Geophysical (e.g. Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic

Activity)
 Hydrological (e.g. Avalanches and Floods)
 Climatological (e.g. Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires)
 Meteorological (e.g. Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges)
 Biological (e.g. Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues)
 The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction characterise Natural
Disasters in relation to their magnitude or intensity, speed of onset, duration, and
area of extent e.g. Earthquakes have short durations and usually affect a relatively
small region, whereas Droughts are slow to develop and fade away and often
affect large regions [1].

Man-Made Disasters

Man-Made Disasters as viewed by the International Federation of Red Cross &

Red Crescent Societies are events that are caused by humans which occur in or
close to human settlements often caused as a results of Environmental or
Technological Emergencies. This can include [3]:

 Environmental Degradation
 Pollution
 Accidents (e.g. Industrial, Technological and Transport usually involving
the production, use or transport of hazardous materials)

Complex Emergencies

Some disasters can result from multiple hazards, or, more often, to a complex
combination of both Natural and Man-made causes which involve a break-down of
authority, looting and attacks on strategic installations, including conflict
situations and war. These can include [6]:

 Food Insecurity
 Epidemics
 Armed Conflicts
 Displaced Populations
[6]
According to ICRC these Complex Emergencies are typically characterized by :

 Extensive Violence
 Displacements of Populations
 Loss of Life
 Widespread Damage to both Societies and Economies
 Need for Large-scale, Humanitarian Assistance across Multiple Agencies
 Political and Military Constraints which impact or prevent Humanitarian
Assistance
 Increased Security Risks for Humanitarian Relief Workers
 Pandemic Emergencies

Pandemic (from Greek πᾶν pan "all" and δῆμος demos "people") is an epidemic of
infectious disease that has spread across a large region, which can occur to the
human population or animal population and may affect health, disrupts services
leading to economic and social costs. It may be an unusual or unexpected increase
in the number of cases of an infectious disease which already exists in a certain
region or population or can also refer to the appearance of a significant number of
cases of an infectious disease in a region or population that is usually free from
that disease. Pandemic Emergencies may occur as a consequence of Natural or
Man-Made Disasters. These have included the following Epidemics: [7] [8]

 Ebola
 Zika
 Avian Flu
 Cholera
 Dengue Fever
 Malaria
 Yellow Fever
 COVID 19

UNIT – II
NATURE DISASTER

A natural disaster is unforeseen, severe and immediate. Pollution, ozone depletion in

the stratosphere and global warming come in this category. Natural disasters include
cyclones, earthquakes, floods, drought (though these two are now being increasingly
considered ‘man- made’ disasters) heat and cold waves, landslides, avalanches, flash
floods, severe thunderstorms, hail, low level wind shears, and microburst.

Natural Disaster
Example Profile First response

Avalanche The sudden, drastic flow of snow down Shut off utilities; Evacuate
a slope, occurring when either natural building if necessary;
triggers, such as loading from new snow Determine impact on the
or rain, or artificial triggers, such as equipment and facilities and
explosives or backcountry skiers, any disruption
 overload the snowpack

Power off all equipment;

A severe snowstorm characterized by listen to blizzard advisories;
Blizzard
very strong winds and low temperatures Evacuate area, if unsafe;
Assess damage

Shut off utilities; Evacuate

The shaking of the earth's crust, caused
building if necessary;
by underground volcanic forces of
Earthquake Determine impact on the
breaking and shifting rock beneath the
equipment and facilities and
earth's surface
any disruption

Attempt to suppress fire in

early stages; Evacuate
Fires that originate in uninhabited areas
personnel on alarm, as
Fire (wild) and which pose the risk to spread to
necessary; Notify fire
inhabited areas
department; Shut off utilities;
Monitor weather advisories

Monitor flood advisories;

Flash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, Determine flood potential to
Flood dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or facilities; Pre-stage
even low-lying areas flood quickly emergency power generating
equipment; Assess damage

Monitor weather advisories;

Freezing Rain occurring when outside surface
arrange for snow and ice
rain temperature is below freezing
removal

Heat wave A prolonged period of excessively hot Listen to weather advisories;

weather relative to the usual weather
pattern of an area and relative to normal
temperatures for the season
Power-off all servers after a
graceful shutdown if there is
imminent potential of power
failure; Shut down main
electric circuit usually located
 in the basement or the first
floor

Power off all equipment;

listen to hurricane advisories;
Evacuate area, if flooding is
possible; Check gas, water
Hurricane Heavy rains and high winds and electrical lines for
damage; Do not use
telephones, in the event of
severe lightning; Assess
damage

Shut off utilities; Evacuate

Geological phenomenon which includes
building if necessary;
a range of ground movement, such as
Landslide Determine impact on the
rock falls, deep failure of slopes and
equipment and facilities and
shallow debris flows
any disruption

Power off all equipment;

listen to hurricane advisories;
Evacuate area, if flooding is
An electrical discharge caused by possible; Check gas, water
Lightning
lightning, typically during and electrical lines for
strike
thunderstorms damage; Do not use
telephones, in the event of
severe lightning; Assess
damage

Shut off utilities; Evacuate

building if necessary;
Limnic The sudden eruption of carbon dioxide
Determine impact on the
eruption from deep lake water
equipment and facilities and
any disruption

Tornado Violent rotating columns of air which Monitor tornado advisories;

 Power off equipment; Shut off
descend from severe thunderstorm utilities (power and gas);
cloud systems Assess damage once storm
passes

A series of waves hitting shores

strongly, mainly caused by the
Power off all equipment;
displacement of a large volume of a
listen to tsunami advisories;
body of water, typically an ocean or a
Evacuate area, if flooding is
Tsunami large lake, usually caused by
possible; Check gas, water
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and electrical lines for
underwater explosions, landslides,
damage; Assess damage
glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and
other disturbances above or below water

Shut off utilities; Evacuate

building if necessary;
Volcanic The release of hot magma, volcanic ash
Determine impact on the
eruption and/or gases from a volcano
equipment and facilities and
any disruption

EARTHQUAKE:

Stated simply, ‘an earthquake is a vehement shake of the earth from natural causes’.
Technically an earthquake is a phenomenon of strong vibrations occurring on the
ground, consequent to release of large amount of energy within a short period of time
because of some disturbance in the earth’s crust or in the upper part of the mantle.

Causes:

The theory of plate tectonics offers a comprehensive explanation for several

geological phenomena — continental drift, mountain building and volcanism, and, of
course, earthquake. According to this theory, when the molten mass that was the earth
billions of years ago cooled down, the crust that was formed was not one homogenous
piece but broken into about a dozen large plates and several smaller ones with their
thickness ranging from 30 km down to the lithosphere at depth of about 100 km or so.
The plates are in incessant motion, with speeds of about 1 cm to 5 cm a year. This
mobile jigsaw puzzle is what is termed as the continental drift, which results in the
formation of mountains, midoceanic ridges, ocean trenches, volcanoes and seismic
energy buildup. Where two places converge or collide, a deep trench forms and one
plate is deflected downwards into the asthenosphere which lies below the crust and the
lithosphere.

When two thick continential plates collide, rocks on the land are relatively light and
too buoyant to descend into the asthenosphere. The result is a huge zone of crushing,
with rocks and other materials being folded. And this is how the Himalayas have
emerged or, in fact, are continuing to emerge.

As the deformation of the plate margins goes on, energy builds up in rocks in the form
of elastic strain which continues till it exceeds their elastic limits and the rocks give
way. The sudden release of stored elastic energy causes earthquakes.

Earthquakes in India are caused by the release of elastic strain energy created and
replenished by the stresses from the collision between the Indian plate and the
Eurasian plate. The most intense earthquakes occur on the boundaries of the Indian
plate to the east, north and west.

In the Indian plate, faults are created when this rubs against the Eurasian plate. (When
an earthquake occurs along a fault line within the plate, it is called an intra-plate
earthquake. The majority of the earthquakes occur along plate boundaries.)

Earthquakes are also caused by volcanic activity. Construction of large water

reservoirs may also cause earthquakes—these are called reservoir-induced
earthquakes.

Earthquake Zones:

The movement of the plates and occurrence of earthquakes seem to be concentrated in

certain areas or zones of the earth.

Based on intensity and frequency of occurrence, world map is divided into the
following earthquake zones or belts—

Circum-Pacific Belt Surrounds the Pacific Ocean and accounts for more than three-
fourths of the world’s earthquakes. Sometimes called the ‘Ring of Fire’, its epicentre
are the coastal margins of North and South America and East Asia. These represent
the eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean respectively. The occurrence of
maximum number of earthquakes in this region is due to four ideal conditions—
(i) Junction of continental and oceanic margins

(ii) Zone of young folded mountains

(iii) Zone of active volcanoes

(iv) Subduction zone of destructive or convergent plate boundaries

Mid-Continental Belt:
Also called the Mediterranean Belt or Alpine-Himalayan Belt, it accounts for about 21
per cent of the total seismic shocks. It includes the epicentres of the Alpine mountains
and their offshoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, Northern Africa, Eastern Africa,
Himalayan Mountains and Burmese hills.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt:

The epicentres of this region are along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and the islands near the
ridge. This belt represents the zone of moderate and shallow focus earthquakes—the
reason for this being the creation of transform faults and fractures because of splitting
of plates followed by their movement in the opposite direction.

Based on seismic data and different geological and geophysical parameters, the
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) had initially divided the country into five seismic
zones. In 2003, however, BIS redefined the seismic map of India by merging zones I
and II.

Thus India has four such zones now—II, III, IV and V. There is thus no part of the
country that can be termed earthquake free. Of the five seismic zones, zone V is the
most active region and zone I shows least seismic activity.

The entire north-eastern region falls in zone V. Besides the North- East, zone V
includes parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of
Kachch in Gujarat, northern Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. One of the
reasons for this region being prone to earthquake is the presence of the young-fold
Himalayan Mountains here which have frequent tectonic movements.

Zone IV which is the next most active region of seismic activity covers Sikkim, Delhi,
remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, northern parts of
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra
near the west coast.

Zone III comprises Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep, remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The remaining states with lesser known activity fall in
zone II.

The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, the Bihar-Nepal border, the Rann of Katchh in Gujarat and the Andaman
Islands fall into the unstable belt which stretches right across the globe.

The high seismicity of the Indian subcontinent arises from the tectonic disturbances
associated with the northward movement of the Indian plate, which is underthrasting
the Eurasian plate.

The Himalayan region has been the site for great earthquakes of the world of
magnitude greater than 8.0. This highly seismic belt is a branch of one of the three
major seismic belts of the world called the “Alpide-Himalayan Belt”. The high
seismicity region extends from Hindukush in the west to Sadiya in the northeast which
further extends down to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Earthquakes occur every day around the world. Each day there are about 1,000 very
small earthquakes measuring 1 to 2 on the Richter scale. Approximately, there is one
every 87 seconds. Annually, on an average, there are 800 quakes capable of causing
damage with a magnitude of 5-5.9, and 18 major ones with a magnitude of 7 or more.

The behaviour of some animals is also believed to undergo a distinct change prior to
an earthquake. Some lower creatures are perhaps more sensitive to sound and
vibrations than humans; or endowed with what one may call prescience. Another
approach is to estimate the probabilistic occurrence of an earthquake statistically by
relating the past occurrences to weather conditions, volcanic activity and tidal forces.

There have been some notable Indian efforts too in developing prediction models in
the Himalayan-belt context. One relates to the so- called seismic gaps, which
postulates that great earthquakes rupture the Himalayan arc whose total length is about
1700 km. Of this, about 1400 km is supposed to have been ruptured releasing part of
the pent-up energy during the last four great earthquakes, leaving a portion of about
300 km to be broken in a “future great earthquake”.

Some measures to prevent building collapse during the earthquake are: symmetry and
rectangularity of building; symmetry in locating openings; simplicity in elevation or
avoidance of ornamentation; intersecting internal walls so as to divide the total plan in
square enclosures of not more than 6 m wide; use of steel or wooden dowels going
into walls meeting at corners (shear walls) or T-junctions to provide effective
bonding; use of bond beam or band of reinforced concrete at lintel levels of openings
and serving as lintel too. The last one is the one feature that is most effective in
ensuring the integrity of enclosures like a rigid box.

A quake’s magnitude is usually measured in terms of the Richter scale. Devised by the
American seismologist, Charles Francis Richter, in 1932, the Richter scale is not a
physical device but a logarithmic scale based on recordings of seismographs,
instruments which automatically detect and record the intensity, direction and duration
of a movement on the ground.

The scale starts at one and has no upper limit. Since it is a logarithmic scale, each unit
is 10 times greater than the previous one; in other words, an increase of one unit
(whole number) on the Richter scale signifies a 10-fold jump in the quake’s size (or
31 times more energy released).

On this scale, the smallest quake felt by humans is about 3.0, and the smallest quake
capable of causing damage is about 4.5. The strongest quake ever recorded had a
magnitude of 8.9. Richter magnitude effects are confined to the vicinity of the
epicentre.

The Richter scale has been immensely modified and upgraded since it was introduced.
It remains the most widely known and used scale for measuring the magnitude of an
earthquake.

For measurement of the intensity of an earthquake, the Modified Mercalli Intensity

Scale is used. The 12-point Mercalli scale measures the intensity of shaking during an
earthquake and is assessed by inspecting the damage and interviewing survivors of the
earthquake. As such, it is extremely subjective.

Furthermore, because the intensity of shaking varies from one place to another during
an earthquake, different Mercalli ratings can be given for the same earthquake. Unlike
the Mercalli scale, the Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake at its
epicentre.

For masonry construction, the BIS has specified that materials to be used should be
well-burnt bricks and not sun-dried bricks. The use of arches to span over openings is
a source of weakness and should be avoided unless steel ties are provided.

Scientists have suggested designing buildings to counter quake movement by shifting

the centre of gravity with the help of a steel weight placed on the top of the buildings.

In plain areas or towns which are located on a river bank, or situated on a thick layer
of alluvial soil (like Ahmedabad), the ‘deep piles technology’ may be useful. In this
technique, thick, columns of concrete and steel are inserted 10-30 metre deep into the
soil beneath the regular foundation. In case of earthquakes, these pillars provide extra
strength and prevent the buildings from collapsing.

In the ‘base isolation technique’, heavy blocks of rubber and steel are put between the
foundation and the building. During a quake, the rubber absorbs the shocks.

In high-rises, enlarged structures on the top floors should be avoided. Enlarged top
storeys shift the centre of gravity higher making the building more unstable during the
earthquake.

‘Soft first storeys’ should be avoided. In cities, many buildings stand on columns. The
ground floor is generally used for parking and walls start from the first floor. These
buildings collapse quickly during an earthquake.

Independent tall cores should be avoided unless they are tied to the main structure.

CYCLONES:

Tropical cyclones, the most destructive of nature’s phenomena, are known to

form over all tropical oceans except over the South Atlantic and the South Pacific,
east of about 140° W. An intense low pressure area in the atmosphere is formed
before/after the monsoon. It is associated with fierce wind and heavy rainfall.
Horizontally it extends from 500 to 1000 km and vertically from the surface to about
14 km.

Severe tropical cyclones cause considerable damage to property and agricultural

crops. The principal dangers posed are: (a) fierce winds; (b) torrential rains and
associated flooding; and (c) high storm tides (combined effect of storm surge and
tides). Rainfall up to 20 to 30 cm a day is common.

The highest ever sustained winds recorded in the case of tropical cyclones are 317
kmph. Storm surge (rise of sea level) of four metres are common. The highest sea
level elevation in the world due to continued effect of storm surge and astronomical
high tide occurred in 1876 near Bakerganj, where the sea level rose by about 12
metres above the mean sea level on that occasion.

Tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal occur in two district seasons, the pre-
monsoon months of April-May and the post-monsoon months of October-November.
On an average, in fact, almost half a dozen tropical cyclones form in the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea every year, out of which two or three may be severe.
Out of these, the stormiest months are May-June, October and November. Compared
to the pre- monsoon season of May, June, when severe storms are rare, the months of
October and November are known for severe cyclones. The IMD has published the
tracks of the cyclones since 1891 and updates them every year in its quarterly
scientific journal, Mausam.

As 90 per cent of the deaths in severe cyclones all over the world occur in high storm
surges accompanying them, the only feasible method to save the lives of human
beings and animals is to evacuate them to safe inland cyclone shelters as early as
possible after the receipt of advance cyclone warnings from the IMD. The evacuation
of people is difficult in flat coastal districts as in Bangladesh where the tides of six to
10 metres above the sea level submerges offshore islands and travels inland for
considerable distances.

Accepted technology, therefore, only provides the capability to detect and track
cyclones with sophisticated satellite imagery and ground- based radar systems. But
here too the limitations are glaring. Atmospheric science, for example, is not yet in a
position to unambiguously predict the motion and behaviour of a cyclone more than
24 hours ahead of its arrival. So all that is possible in that brief span is to warn the
vulnerable sections of the population of the imminent danger and adopt measures to
move them to safer cyclone withstanding structures.

The frequency, intensity and coastal impact of cyclones varies from region to region.
Interestingly, the frequency of tropical cyclones is the least in the north Indian Ocean
regions of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea; they are also of moderate
intensities. But the cyclones are deadliest when they cross the coast bordering North
Bay of Bengal (coastal areas of Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh).

If the terrain is shallow and shaped like a funnel, like that of Bangladesh—much of
the exposed land is just about at the mean sea level or even less—storm surges get
enormously amplified. Coastal inundation due to a combination of high tide and storm
surge can cause the worst disaster.

India has an efficient cyclone warning system. Tropical cyclones are tracked with the
help of (i) regular observation from weather network of surface and upper air
observation stations, (ii) ships report, (iii) cyclone detection radars, (iv) satellites, and
(v) reports from commercial aircraft.

A network of cyclone detection radars have been set up along the coast at Kolkata,
Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Machilipatnam, Chennai, Karaikal, Kochi, Goa, Mumbai
and Bhuj. The range of these radars is 400 km. When the cyclone is beyond the range
of coastal radars, its intensity and movement is monitored with weather satellites.

Warnings are issued by the area cyclone warning centres located at Kolkata, Chennai
and Mumbai, and cyclone warning centres at Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam and
Ahmedabad.

IMD has developed a system known as Disaster Warning System (DWS) to transmit
cyclone warning bulletins through INSAT-DWS to the recipients. This consists of the
following elements:

(i) The cyclone warning centre for originating the area code of the districts and
disaster warning message;

(ii) The earth station located near the cyclone warning centre with uplink facility in C-
band and suitable communication links;

(iii) The C/S band transponder on board INSAT; and

(iv) The INSAT-DWS receivers located in cyclone prone areas.

Typically, in a cyclone the maximum devastative effects are within about 100 km
from the centre and on the right of the storm track where all the islands lie. Evacuating
the population just 24 hours before would require an army of high speed boats, an
unfeasible proposition for a resource—poor country. The obvious solution, therefore,
would be to provide a large number of storm shelters in the particularly vulnerable
areas.

FLOODS:

In most cases ‘flooding’ is caused by a river over-spilling its banks due to (a)
excessive precipitation, (b) obstruction in the river bed, (c) inadequate waterways at
rail/road crossings, (d) drainage congestion, and (e) change in river course.

Flood forecasting in India commenced in 1958 with the establishment of a unit in

Central Water Commission (CWC). Earlier, it used to be done by a conventional
method—gauge to gauge or discharge correlation by which future gauges at forecast
points are estimated on the basis of gauge discharge observed at some upstream
station. Gradually, other parameters like precipitation, etc. were incorporated.
Nowadays, computer-based hydrological models are being used for inflow and flood
forecasting.
The basic information required for flood forecasting is rainfall data of the catchment
area of the river. Due to poor communication and inaccessibility, complete
information is not always available. However, with sophisticated high-powered S-
band radars, it is now possible to estimate the rainfall in an area of up to 200 km
around the radar site.

This system is used extensively in the US for estimating the rainfall potential in the
catchment areas of major rivers an issue of flood forecast warning. The use of radar
for the precipitation estimate is based on the principle that the amount of echo return
from a volume of cloud depends on the number and size of hydrometeros in it. The
empirical relationship between the echo return and the rainfall rates has been
developed for various types of rain.

Using fast switching digital circuits, the return video is digitised, integrated,
normalised and contoured into standard six or seven rainfall rates. Observations taken
every ten minutes can be cumulatively added and averaged to give 24-hour rainfall
prediction over the region. Through appropriate modes, the information from a
number of radar sites can be sent to a central office where powerful computers process
the data and yield the overall rainfall potential of the weather system.

The advantage of using radars for hydrological work lies in the fact that the
information over the inaccessible region is available without actual human
intervention. Of course, there are many assumptions which do not always hold good,
thereby introducing large errors in the result.

But with suitable calibration with actual gauge measurements correction factors could
be applied. Another advantage of the radar measurement that it puts the time for the
collection of rainfall data thereby increasing the lead time available for
rescue/evacuation efforts in the region likely to be affected.

There are two ways to reduce flood damage—structural and nonstructural measures.
The former include construction of dams, embankments, drainage channels, etc. This
has not helped much as population has moved into areas where flooding used to occur
and has been controlled due to structure. Whenever flooding level is higher than what
the structure can hold, the result is devastating.

The non-structural approach calls for removing populations from the flood plains.
Another important aspect is to reduce the silting of rivers. Afforestation in the
catchment areas, along the river banks, helps in maintaining the effective river
volume.
The National Flood Commission (NFC) was set up specifically to deal with the
problem of floods. But it is evident that, over the last four decades or so, flood control
efforts have proved counter-productive because they have not included adequate
planning for conservation of watersheds.

As a result the increasing siltation of rivers is accelerating their rate of flow in flood,
eventually forcing even well built embankments to give way. As is well known,
embankments increase the force of the river by channelling it over a narrow area
instead of permitting it to spread. The danger of relying too heavily on the system of
embankments for flood control has been well documented.

Apart from the depletion in forest cover, overgrazing contributes greatly to soil loss in
the catchment areas. Even in the mountainous areas, where efforts have been made to
plant trees on steep slopes to reduce the soil loss during rains, mountain goats have
impeded the process of regeneration. Cattle and goats also destroy the plant cover that
springs up after the rain which is crucial for holding down the soil.

Human activity is yet another factor. Quarrying, road construction, and other building
activity in sensitive catchment areas add to the soil loss.

Consequently in order to save the dam, unscheduled and panic releases of water are
resorted to often without giving adequate warning to people downstream who live in
the path of the released water. Thus ironically dams built partly to assist in flood
control, are today contributing to the devastation caused by floods.

Although flood management is a state subject, the Union government provides Central
assistance to the flood-prone states for a few specified schemes, which are technical
and promotional in nature.

Some such Centrally-sponsored schemes are: critical anti-erosion works in Ganga

basin states, critical anti-erosion works in coastal and other than Ganga basin states,
maintenance of flood protection works of Kosi and Gandak projects, etc. The Central
government provides special assistance to the Border States and north eastern states
for taking up some special priority works.

The Central Water Commission is engaged in flood forecasting on inter-state river

basins through 134 river-level forecasting and 25 inflow forecasting stations on major
dams/barrages throughout the country.
TSUNAMI:

A tsunami is a series of travelling ocean waves which are set off by geological
disturbances near the floor of the ocean. The waves of very, very long wavelengths
and period rush across the ocean and increase their momentum over a stretch of
thousands of kilometers. Some tsunamis may appear as a tide but they are not tidal
waves in reality.

While tides are caused by gravitational influences of the moon, sun and the planets,
tsunamis are seismic sea waves. That is, they are related to an earthquake- related
mechanism of generation. Tsunamis are usually a result of earthquakes, but may be at
times caused by landslides or volcanic eruption or, very rarely, a large meteorite
impact on the ocean.

The tsunami can be understood at the basic level by looking at the series of concentric
ripples formed in a lake when a stone is thrown into it. A tsunami is like those ripples
but caused by a disturbance much greater in magnitude.

Tsunamis are shallow-water waves different from the wind-generated waves which
usually have a period of five to twenty seconds which refers to the time between two
successional waves of about 100 to 200 metres. Tsunamis behave as shallow-water
waves because of their long wavelengths.

They have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and a wavelength
exceeding 500 km. The rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely related to its
wavelength. So tsunamis lose little energy as they propagate as they have a very large
wavelength. So they will travel at high speeds in deep waters and travel great
distances as well losing little energy.

A tsunami that occurs 1000 metres deep in water has a speed of 356 km per hour. At
6000 m, it travels at 873 Ion per hour. It travels at different speeds in water: it travels
slow in water that is shallow and fast in deep water. As an average ocean depth of
5000 m is assumed, one talks of tsunamis as having an average speed of about 750 km
per hour.

As a tsunami leaves deep waters and propagates into the shallow waters, it transforms.
This is because as the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the tsunami reduces.
But the change of total energy of the tsunami remains constant. With decrease in
speed, height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was imperceptible in deep
water may grow to many metres high and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.
Tsunami attacks can come in different forms depending upon the geometry of the
seafloor warping that first caused the waves. Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw
a breath but then this withdrawal is followed by arrival of the crest of a tsunami wave.
Tsunamis have been known to occur suddenly without warning.

The water level on the shore rises to many metres: more than 15 m for tsunamis
originating at a distance and over 30 metres for tsunamis that originate near the
earthquake’s epicentre. Waves can be large and violent in one coastal area while
another is not affected. Areas can be flooded inland to 305 metres or more; when
tsunami waves retreat, they carry things and people out to sea. Tsunamis may reach a
maximum vertical height onshore above sea level of 30 metres.

The size of the tsunami waves is determined by the quantum of deformation of the sea
floor. Greater the vertical displacement, greater will be the wave size. For tsunamis to
occur, earthquakes must happen underneath or near the ocean. They must be large and
create movements in the ocean floor. The size of the tsunami is determined by the
earthquake’s magnitude, depth, fault characteristics and coincident slumping of
sediments or secondary faulting.

Occurrence:

Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua, Mexico and Indonesia have created killer
tsunamis. The Pacific among the oceans has witnessed most number of tsunamis (over
790 since 1990).

One of the deadliest tsunamis occurred in Asia on December 26, 2005. Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Somalia bore the brunt
of the disaster that killed over 55,000 people.

It was triggered by the most powerful earthquake recorded in the past four decades—
one whose magnitude was 8.9 on the Richter scale. A tsunami with a magnitude 9.2
temblor struck Alaska in 1964.

Geographical Changes Caused by Tsunamis:

Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography. The December 26 earth-
quake and tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm in the direction of 145 degrees
East longitude and reduced the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds. This in turn
affected the velocity of earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which plays a strong
role in weather patterns.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may have moved by about 1.25 m owing to the
impact of the colossal earthquake and the tsunami.

The Indian Ocean is not prone to tsunamis. Only two have occurred in this ocean
including one on December 26, 2004. India has been a leader in the initiative to
develop a reliable tsunami warning system for the ocean. It has decided to set up a
sophisticated system for detecting deep sea movements and develop a network with
the countries in the Indian Ocean region for sharing information on tsunamis.

The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) will be set up six
kilometers deep under the sea. It will have pressure sensors to detect the water
movement. The sensors will be linked to the satellite that will relay information to the
earth station. Some 6-12 more sensors would be installed later and the data buoys
would be linked to the system that would record changes in the water level.

The Indian government plans to set up a network with Indonesia, Myanmar and
Thailand which would calculate the magnitude and intensity of tsunamis from the data
available to it. DART-type gauges will be installed by the government and it will join
26 countries in a network that warn each other about tsunamis.

A state-of-the-art National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which has the capability to
detect earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in the Indian Ocean was inaugurated in
2007 in India. Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre
for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), the 125-crore tsunami warning system
would take 30 minutes to analyse the seismic data following an earthquake. The
system comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, bottom pressure recorders
(BPRs), and 30 tide gauges to detect tsunamigenic earthquakes and monitor tsunamis.

Management:

The management aspect of disaster may be classified as: (a) early warning system; (b)
rescue operations; (c) relief operations; (d) rehabilitation; and (e) long range planning.
The most important is the early warning systems. Unless sufficient advance notice is
available, evacuation of the population likely to be affected cannot be undertaken.

UNIT - III
MANMADE DISASTER
The word disaster is derived from Middle French désastre and that from Old
Italian disastro, which in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix δυσ-,
(dus-) "bad" and ἀστήρ (aster), "star". The root of the word disaster ("bad star" in
Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of
planets.
Human-instigated disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards.
Examples include war, social unrest, stampedes, fires, transport accidents, industrial
accidents, conflicts, oil spills, terrorist attacks, nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation.
Other types of induced disasters include the more cosmic scenarios of
catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism.
One opinion argues that all disasters can be seen as human-made, due to human
failure to introduce appropriate emergency management measures.

Man made Disaster

Example Profile First response
Get information immediately
from public health officials via the
news media as to the right course of
The intentional release or
action; If you think you have been
Bioterrorism dissemination of biological
exposed, quickly remove your
agents as a means of coercion
clothing and wash off your skin; put
on a HEPA to help prevent inhalation
of the agent
A disturbance caused by a
group of people that may
include and other forms of
obstructions, riots, sabotage and
Contact local police or law
Civil unrest other forms of crime, and which
enforcement
is intended to be a
demonstration to the public and
the government, but can
escalate into general chaos
Attempt to suppress fire in early
Even with strict building fire stages; Evacuate personnel on alarm,
Fire (urban) codes, people still perish as necessary; Notify fire department;
needlessly in fires Shut off utilities; Monitor weather
advisories
Hazardous The escape of solids, liquids, or Leave the area and call the local fire
material gases that can harm people, department for help If anyone was
spills other living organisms, property affected by the spill, call the your
or the environment, from their local Emergency Medical Services
intended controlled line
 environment such as a
container.
An event involving significant Recognize that a CBRN incident has
release of radioactivity to the or may occur. Gather, assess and
Nuclear and environment or a reactor core disseminate all available information
radiation meltdown and which leads to to first responders. Establish an
accidents major undesirable overview of the affected area. Provide
consequences to people, the and obtain regular updates to and
environment, or the facility from first responders.
Wait 5–10 minutes; power off all
Caused by summer or winter servers after a graceful shutdown; do
Power storms, lightning or not use telephones, in the event of
failure construction equipment digging severe lightning; shut down main
in the wrong location electric circuit usually located in the
basement or the first floor

FIRES :
Fires are events of burning something. They are often destructive taking up toll of life
and property. It is observed that more people die in a fire than in a cyclone,
earthquake, floods and other natural disasters combined. Fires are a great threat to
forests and wild life because they spread speedily and cause tremendous damage in a
short time. In cities fires break out in home, jhuggis, buildings specially godowns and
factories. Fire can spread to a large area. Many people may die of burns and
asphyxiation.
Contamination of air, water and soil, which may affect the crops, plants and animals,
and soil fertility.
(i) Causes
During summer months such fires results in casualties and enormous economic losses.
There are numerous causes of fires.
Some important ones are given here-
• Throwing burning matchsticks or cigarettes irresponsibility.
• Heating sources can cause fire in houses e.g. clothes may catch fire while cooking on
kerosene stove or gas stove.
• Cooking accidents are a major cause of fire at home. Fire can result due to
unattended cooking. • A short circuit in an electric wiring can cause fire. Overheating
of electric appliances, poor wiring connections, use of sub-standard quality appliances
can also result in a fire.
• Rubbish and waste materials often lying on roadsides or near houses may catch fire
when people throw burning matchstick or cigarette butt.
• Storage and transportation of inflammable material or explosive chemicals without
proper precautions may cause fires
• Forest fires may result from human negligence or carelessness.

(ii) Effects • Casualities Death of humans and livestock may occur due to burning or
serious injuries from fire. In rural areas often the entire harvested crop stored in
securely may catch fire and burn to ashes resulting in heavy loss to the owner.

(iii) Management • Obey fire safety rules and remember the evacuation route in case
of fire.
• Keep and handle inflammable materials with utmost care.
• Keep a fire extinguisher in the house and learn how to use it.
• When you leave home, make sure to shut off all electrical and gas appliances.
• Do not plug several devices into one socket.
• Keep matches away from children.
• Do not block access routes by cupboards or any furniture.
• In the event of a fire call the fire department immediately.
• In the smoke filled corridor, crawl on all floors or on your belly as the smoke is less
on the floor. • Find at least two ways to escape from your home.
• Make sure that you remove all the waste material from work place and home on
regular basis.
• Hazardous materials such as paints, solvents, adhesives, chemicals or gas cylinders
should be kept in separate storage, well away from fire.
• Fire crackers on Diwali is a major cause of fire in our country. Use them carefully
under supervision of elders.

ROAD, RAIL AND AIR TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

Road accidents Road networks are developed for better connectivity and service.
Increased number of vehicles, violation of traffic rules, speeding, drunken driving and
poor maintenance of vehicles as well as of roads are some of the main causes of road
accidents.

In order to avoid accidents following safety measures can be adopted: • Look on either
side of the road before crossing. • Use zebra crossing while crossing the road by foot.
• Wear helmet while riding a two-wheeler. • Use seat belt provided in your car. •
Drive only if you possess a proper driving license. • Be familiar with road markings
and honour them. • Maintain a safety distance from the vehicle in front. • Do not jump
lanes. It becomes difficult for other vehicles, on the road to anticipate your move. • Do
not be rash and do not try to overtake unnecessarily. • The best way to be safe on
roads is to follow “lane driving” • While driving avoid sudden acceleration and
deceleration. • Replace the worn tyres and faulty headlamps. • Check the tyre
pressure, radiator water, brake oil and fuel frequently. • Dip your beam whenever you
spot an oncoming vehicle. • Follow the maintenance schedule prescribed by the
manufacturer. • Overcome impatience, anger and intoxication during driving. Road
rage is dangerous. • In case a mishap occurs stay calm. • In case of fire, try to get out
as early as possible and do not worry about the baggage.

RAIL ACCIDENT:
The most common type of rail accident is derailment due to human error, sabotage or
natural landslide in a hilly track, or fire. Rail accidents lead to large number of
casualties and material damage. Indian Railways incur heavy loss due to such
accidents every year. Some of the common safety measures are:- • At railway
crossings pay attention to the signal and the swing barrier. Do not get underneath and
try to get across. • In case of a unmanned crossing, get down from the vehicle and
look at either sides of the track before crossing. • Do not stop the train on a bridge or
tunnel where evacuation is not possible. • Do not carry inflammable material in a
train. • Do not lean out of a moving train. • Do not smoke in train. • Do not pull the
emergency cord unnecessarily.

AIR ACCIDENTS
Air accidents may occur due to technical problems, fire, poor landing and take-off,
weather conditions, hijacking, bombing etc.
Some of the common safety measures are:
• Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration. • Carefully read the safety card
in the pocket. • Know where is the nearest emergency exit and learn how to open it. •
Always keep your seatbelt fastened when seated. • Stay calm, listen to the crew
members and follow their instructions. • Before you try to open any emergency door
yourself, look outside the window. If you see a fire outside the door, do not open it or
the flame may spread into the cabin. Try to use an alternate route for escape. •
Remember, smoke rises. So try to stay down if there is smoke in the cabin. • If you
have a cloth, put it over your nose and mouth.

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS:
Industrial accidents can be due to explosion, fire and leakage of toxic or hazardous
chemicals and lead to heavy loss of life and material. Leakage of chemicals and
explosion may be due to human error, technological failure or geological hazards like
earthquakes, flood etc. Fire in an industry may result from human error or electrical
faults (short circuit).
Effects The industrial premises and immediate surroundings are at high risk in the
event of an industrial accident. Employees and residents of nearby localities and their
live-stock and crops in nearby areas are severely affected. The environment over a
large area gets polluted. Hazardous chemicals released into the atmosphere or into a
water body may travel long distances and may even damage the entire ecosystem
around the industrial area.

This is what has happened in Bhopal in the year 1984, when about 45 tonnes of
methyl isocyanide (MIC) gas leaked into the atmosphere killing more than 2500
people. Explosion or fire or leakage of corrosive chemicals severely damage
structures. If the chemical is in gaseous form the geographical spread is fast and wide .
Many people may die either due to mechanical damage from explosion or fire or due
to toxicity of the poisonous chemicals. The routes of exposure to chemical released
from an accidents are from inhalation, eye exposure, skin contact and ingestion. The
polluting agents can have both immediate or long term effects. The immediate effects
include death or other symptoms like dizziness, headache, irritation etc. The long term
effects may include cancer, heart failure, brain damage, disfunction of immune
system, deformation, genetic disorders or congenital(by birth) disorders in children.

(ii) Management
• Inventory of hazardous chemicals It is important to have an inventory of hazardous
chemicals along with their quality, storage locations, characteristics along with
possible hazard associated with hazardous chemicals and this informed all employees
and people living in the neighbourhood should informed about the potential risk. The
inventory as far as possible high risk areas demarcated and displayed along with
indicating affected zone and safe routes for evacuation in the event of emergency.
• Location of industries Industries should not be sited in residential areas. A
large buffer zone, in form of a green belt, for separating an industrial area from
residential areas.
• Community preparedness The community should be aware of the hazardous
installations and know how to combat the situation. Some members of the community
should monitor the potential risk and participate in safety training organised by
industries.
• Other measures Limit storage capacity of the toxic chemicals. Improve
firefighting capability, warning systems and measures for preventing pollution
dispersion. Develop emergency relief and evacuation planning for employees and
nearby settlements. Adopt insurance for employees and surrounding population which
is mandatory under the law.

STAMPEDE
A stampede (/stæmˈpiːd/) is a situation in which a group of people or large animals
such as horses suddenly start running in the same direction, especially because they
are excited or frightened or a situation in which a lot of people are trying to do or
achieve the same thing at the same time.
Crushes often occur during religious pilgrimages and large entertainment events, as
they tend to involve dense crowds, with people closely surrounded on all sides.
Human stampedes and crushes also occur as people try to get away from a perceived
danger, as in a case where a noxious gas was released in crowded premises. According
to experts, true "stampedes" (and "panics") rarely occur except when many people are
fleeing in fear, such as from a fire, and trampling by people in such "stampede"
conditions rarely causes fatal injuries.

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
Mines, factories, and other industrial centers have been at the heart of some of
history's worst accidents. These places can contain volatile materials, or undergo
immense structural stress due to the labor conducted there. In worst case scenarios,
these sites can suffer from explosions or collapses, leading to loss of life and potential
environmental damage.
Industrial Accidents
Fires and Explosions
Oil Spills
Dam
Fatal Mining Accidents

TRANSPORTATION ACCIDENTS
Anyone who's driven a car knows that getting from point A to point B can sometimes
be dangerous. Errors in judgement, minor technical malfunctions, and even the
interference of animals can cause serious problems. When these problems occur with
mass transit vehicles like trains, those problems can be disastrous.
Railroad Accidents
Aircraft Crashes
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370
Space Accidents
Mysterious Disappearances
Shipwrecks Since 1833
Submarine Accidents
NUCLEAR & CHEMICAL DISASTERS
Though they've been infrequent since the discovery of nuclear fission in the 1930s,
there have been a few instances where attempts to harness nuclear power have gone
horribly awry. These disasters can leave miles ofland uninhabitable for decades, or
even centuries. Leaks of dangerous chemicals can have a similar effect, though these
are generally less severe.

TERRORISM
Terrorism is the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the
criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or ransom.
Terrorists often use threats to create fear among the public to try to convince citizens
that their government is powerless to prevent terrorism and to get immediate publicity
for their causes.

Acts of terrorism range from threats of terrorism, assassinations, kidnappings,

hijackings, bomb scares and bombings, and cyber attacks (computer-based), to the use
of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons.

High-risk targets include military and civilian government facilities, international

airports, large cities, and high-profile landmarks. Terrorists might also target large
public gatherings, water and food supplies, utilities, and corporate centers. Further,
they are capable of spreading fear by sending explosives or chemical and biological
agents through the mail.

In the immediate area of a terrorist event, you would need to rely on police, fire, and
other officials for instructions. However, you can prepare in much the same way you
would prepare for other crisis events.

Acts of terror stick out from the rest of this page as they are the result of deliberate,
politically-motivated aggression and violence. However some notable terrorist actions
of the last decades are listed.
The 2013 Boston Marathon Tragedy
Terrorist Attacks
Terrorist Attacks in the U.S.
September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism
Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda
UNIT – IV
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster is a sudden event that causes a lot of damage, such as a very bad fire, storm,
or accident. Also an event that results in great harm, damage, or death,
or serious difficulty.

Disaster, as defined by the United Nations , is a serious disruption of the

functioning of a community or society, which involve widespread human,
material, economic or environmental impacts that exceed the ability of the
affected community or society to cope using its own resources.
Disaster management is how we deal with the human, material, economic or
environmental impacts of said disaster, it is the process of how we “prepare for,
respond to and learn from the effects of major failures. Though often caused by
nature, disasters can have human origins.

According to the International Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent

Societies a disaster occurs when a hazard impacts on vulnerable people. The
combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative
consequences of risk results in disaster.

The different phases of disaster management are represented in the disaster cycle
diagram.
 Stages in Disaster Management
 Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management.
 Disaster Risk Management implies the systematic process of using
administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to
implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and
communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and related environmental and
technological disasters.
 These comprise all forms all activities including structural and non- structural
measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse
effects of hazards.
 There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:
1. Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or
environmental losses caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised
when disaster strikes;
2. During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met
to alleviate and minimise suffering; and
3. After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not
reproduce the original vulnerable conditions.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (DRR)

Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyse and reduce the causal factors of disasters.

a. Pre-Disaster risk reduction includes-

Mitigation: To eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of hazards through

proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster occurs.
Preparedness: To take steps to prepare and reduce the effects of disasters.

b. Post-Disaster risk reduction includes-

Rescue: Providing warning, evacuation, search, rescue, providing immediate

assistance.
Relife: To respond to communities who become victims of disaster, providing
relief measures such as food packets, water, medicines, temporary
accommodation, relief camps etc.
Recovery: This stage emphasises upon recovery of victims of disaster, recovery
of damaged infrastructure and repair of the damages caused.
Disaster Risk Reduction in Sustainable Development Goals

Goal 1: Target 1.5, which relates to building the resilience of the poor, further
strengthens the position of disaster risk reduction as a core development strategy for
ending extreme poverty.

Goal 2: Target 2.4 supports the immediate need to advance actions in mainstreaming
disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation into agriculture sector planning and
investments in order to promote resilient livelihoods, food production and ecosystems.

Goal 3: Target 3.d, relates to strengthening early warning and risk reduction of
national and global health risks presents an opportunity to further actions to promote
resilient health.

Goal 4: Target 4.7 focusing on building and upgrading education facilities

and promoting education for sustainable development, contribute significantly to
resilience-building in the education sector.’

Goal 6: Target 6.6, which relates to protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems,
will significantly contribute to strengthening the resilience of communities to water-
related hazards.

Goal 9: Targets 9.1 related to developing sustainable and resilient infrastructure

development are vital not only to protect existing infrastructure but also future
infrastructure investments.

Goal 11: Action targets under this goal (11.1, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.b and 11.c) focusing
on upgrading urban slums, integrated urban planning, reducing social and economic
impacts of disaster risk, building the resilience of the urban poor, adopting and
implementing urban policies in line with the Sendai Framework and building
sustainable and resilient urban infrastructure, are strategic opportunities to ensure
increased capacity to support cities, to protect current and future development
prospects and to build safer, more resilient cities throughout the world.

Goal 13: Target actions under this goal, focusing on strengthening resilience and
adaptive capacity, capacity building and integrating climate change measures into
policies and plans, awareness raising on climate adaptation and early warning (Targets
13.1 to 13.3 and 13.a to 13.b) provide opportunities to strengthen the integration
between disaster and climate resilience and to protect broader development paths at all
levels.
 Goal 14: Target action 14.2, focusing on the sustainable management and protection
as well as strengthening resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, can contribute to
reducing disaster risk and increase in demand for healthy marine and coastal
ecosystems.

Goal 15: Target actions 15.1 to 15.4 and 15.9, focus on managing and restoring
forests, combating land degradation and desertification, conserving mountain
ecosystems and their biodiversity and integrating ecosystem and biodiversity values
into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies.
These targets are also in line with the Sendai Framework focus on building
environmental resilience through the inclusion of ecosystems in risk analysis and
planning.

Challenges in Disaster Risk Reduction

 There are insufficient levels of implementation for each monitored activity.

For example, Disaster risk management plans or a risk sensitive building codes exist
but they are not enforced because of a lack of government capacity or public
awareness.
 There is lack of local capacities to implement disaster risk management. Weak
capacity at the local levels undermines the implementation Disaster preparedness
plans.
 Absence of integration of climate change into Disaster risk management
plans.
 There is divergence of obtaining political and economic commitments due
to other competing needs and priorities such as poverty reduction, social welfare,
education etc. require greater attention and funding.
 Due to poor coordination between stakeholders, there is inadequate access
with respect to risk assessment, monitoring, early warning, disaster response and
other Disaster related activities.
 Insufficient investment in building disaster resilient strategies, also private
sector are least contributors in the share of investment.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FIRST AID

The Greek philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus noted that the only constant is change.
We currently live in an era of unprecedented personal, social, economic, and political
change.
While change can often be uplifting, it can also be distressing. Due to current events,
or perhaps life in general, most of us have directly observed another person in
psychological distress, such as a friend, family member, coworker, or even a complete
stranger. Similarly, those of us who have observed someone in distress have often
been motivated to offer some form of support in an attempt to ease the suffering we
witnessed. Sometimes our efforts were effective, and sometimes they were not. At
other times, despite our best efforts, our actions actually appeared to make matters
worse, intensifying the acute distress.
During such times, we may have lamented the absence of a psychological magic
bullet, a verbal Hail Mary that would immediately end the suffering and lead to the
realization of the promise we’d made that “everything will be ok.” Consistent with our
intuitions, a recommendation in the American Journal of Psychiatry stated that shortly
after a stressful event, it is important that those affected be provided empathic,
practical psychological support beginning with a compassionate and supportive
presence (Bisson, Brayne, Ochberg, & Everly, 2007, p. 1017). Over the past 100
years, there has evolved a simple yet effective helping process we now refer to as
psychological first aid (PFA). The American Red Cross, the American Psychological
Association, and even the United Nations have recognized the importance of PFA. In
its guidelines for mental health response, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee
(IASC) of the United Nations wrote that most people experiencing acute
psychological distress following exposure to stressful events are “best supported
without medication” and that “all aid workers, and especially health workers, should
be able to provide very basic psychological first aid” (2007, pp. 118-119).
Defining Psychological First Aid
PFA may simply be defined as a supportive and compassionate presence designed to
do three things: 1) stabilize (prevent the stress from worsening) 2) mitigate (de-
escalate and dampen) acute distress 3) facilitate access to continued supportive care, if
necessary. PFA does not entail diagnosis or treatment. Nevertheless, like physical first
aid, it requires basic training to be effective and reduce the risk of inadvertently
making things worse (Everly & Lating, 2017).
According to one of the early writers in the field of psychological crisis intervention,
“A little help, rationally directed and purposely focused at a strategic time, is more
effective than extensive help given at a period of less emotional accessibility”
(Rapoport 1965, p. 30). That help can be effectively provided by a friend, teacher,
coach, supervisor, or family member, especially a parent, if certain simple “first aid”
guidelines are followed.
Generally speaking, there are three ways that PFA might begin:

1. Sometimes a person may approach you and ask for assistance. For example,
your best friend calls you and says, “Hey, I’m feeling pretty stressed out, do you
have some time to talk?” In that situation, a simple response like, “Sure, what’s
going on?” In many instances, the person simply wants to vent. They don’t have
any expectation that you will resolve the issue at hand. They simply want to be
 heard. In these situations, it’s important to listen. Do not rush to diminish or solve
the problem, unless that is the expectation. Once you’ve heard what they have to
say, you can simply reply something like, “I’m sorry you are going through that,
how can I help?” This then becomes a good time to help the person make a plan to
address the problem, if possible, or to develop a plan to help them better cope with
a problem that might persist. If the person declines your assistance then you might
just say, “Well let me know if it turns out there is something I can do, even if it’s
just listening.” Follow up with that person in a day or two to see how they are
doing.
2. A second way PFA might begin is when someone approaches you on someone
else’s behalf. They will suggest that you speak with the third party because
something seems wrong. Be sure to ascertain from that person specifically what
makes them believe something is wrong with the third party. For example, your
son’s teacher may contact you and say your son seems to be having a hard time at
school. Your response might be, “What specifically is concerning you?” It might be
grades, conflict with other students, or just a significant change in his behavior.
With that information, at the right time, you could say to your son, “Your teacher
spoke with me yesterday. He said you seem to be distressed. He says you don’t
seem to be your usual self lately. What’s going on?” After listening to what your
son has to say, it might be useful to say something like in the previous example,
“I’m sorry you are going through that, how can I help?” If there is really nothing
you can do to assist directly at that point, then just say, “Well let me know if it
turns out there is something I can do, even if it’s just listening.” Again, periodic
follow up is important.
3. An especially challenging way PFA might begin is when you see someone who
looks or sounds distressed. Based upon your concern for that person’s well-being,
you approach them, but what do you say? How about, “I couldn’t help but notice
you don’t seem yourself today.” Or, “I couldn’t help but notice you seem
distressed.” If they respond, ask, “How can I help?” Then help them develop a plan
to address the problem, or help them develop a plan for coping, or both. If they do
not respond, or say there is nothing you can do, simply say “I’m a good listener.”
Again, if possible, follow up with that person at an appropriate time to see how the
person is doing.
The three scenarios above are merely examples of how PFA might begin. While they
are not comprehensive in their structure or analysis, they will give you an idea of what
PFA might sound like in the beginning. To further assist, listed below are 15 general
Dos and Don’ts for consideration.
15 Dos and Don’ts
1. Do remain calm when speaking to a person in distress. Show concern but be a
confident reassuring presence. The other person will gain confidence from your
confidence.
2. Don't get caught up in the situation. Remember the antidote for stress is calm
and confidence.
3. Do listen. Encourage the person to talk about what happened and their
reactions to those events. If the person does not want to speak at that time, ask if
you can check back with them later.
4. Don't interrupt, unless the disclosure seems to be escalating the distress.
5. Do try to identify “the worst part” of the situation, if possible. Do this
carefully, and it can help you identify the core issues at hand if they are not
otherwise obvious.
6. Don't rush. If the person is medically stable and safe, the passage of time alone
begins to de-escalate situations.
7. Don't be dismissive. Don't minimize their concerns or say, “Well at least…” as
an attempt to distract, or help the person feel better.
8. Don't act on some preconceived notion of what you think the person needs. Ask
what they need (Everly, Brelesky & Everly, 2018). Perspective taking such as this
will foster trust.
9. Don't hesitate to ask specific questions about the person’s ability to
competently attend to others (significant relationships, childcare, eldercare) or
perform the duties of their job.
10. Don't hesitate to ask about intention to harm themselves or others. Seldom will
this be an issue, but sometimes you may sense feelings of profound
hopelessness, depression, anger, or vindictiveness. In such cases, it’s important to
inquire and follow up. In the most rare and extreme cases, you may have to help the
person get immediate professional care.
11. Don't make promises you can't keep.
12. Do determine what else if anything is needed after your initial
conversation. Don’t hesitate to ask for guidance or assistance from a healthcare
professional if you are worried about the person’s well-being.
13. Do serve as a liaison to connect the person with continued assistance, if
necessary.
14. Do advocate for this person in seeking further assistance, if necessary.
15. Do follow up a day or so later to see how the person is doing.
UNIT – V
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The Disaster Management Act, 2005, (23 December 2005) No. 53 of 2005,
was passed by the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India on 28
November, and the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament, on 12 December
2005. It received the assent of The President of India on 23 December 2005. The
Disaster Management Act, 2005 has 11 chapters and 79 sections. The Act extends to
the whole of India. The Act provides effective management of disasters and for
matters connected there with or incidental thereto." The main focus of this act is to
provide the people who are affected with disasters, their life back and helping them.

The DM Act has made the statutory provisions for constitution of National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialized response to natural
and man-made disasters. Accordingly, in 2006 NDRF was constituted with 08 Bns (02
Bn each from Border Security Force (BSF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF),
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) and Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)). The
DM Act, 2005 envisages a paradigm shift from the erstwhile response centric
syndrome to a proactive, holistic and integrated management of disasters with
emphasis on prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

Agencies involved in Disaster Management

 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):- The National Disaster

Management Authority, or the NDMA, is an apex body for disaster
management, headed by the Prime Minister of India. It is responsible for the
supervision, direction, and control of the National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF).
 National Executive Committee (NEC):- The NEC is composed of high
profile ministerial members from the government of India that include the
Union Home Secretary as Chairperson, and the Secretaries to the Government
of India (GoI)like Ministries/Departments of Agriculture, Atomic Energy,
Defence, Drinking Water Supply, Environment and Forests, etc. The NEC
 prepares the National Plan for Disaster Management as per the National Policy
on Disaster Management.
 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA):- The Chief Minister of the
respective state is the head of the SDMA.The State Government has a State
Executive Committee (SEC) which assists the State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA) on Disaster Management.
 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA):- The DDMA is headed
by the District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate
depending on the situation, with the elected representatives of the local
authority as the Co-Chairperson. The DDMA ensures that the guidelines
framed by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the departments of
the State Government at the District level and the local authorities in the
District.
 Local Authorities:- Local authorities would include Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRI), Municipalities, District and Cantonment 11 Institutional and
Legal Arrangements Boards, and Town Planning Authorities which control and
manage civic services.

About NDRF:
Two national calamities in quick succession in the form of Orissa Super Cyclone
(1999) and Gujarat Earthquake (2001) brought about the realization of the need for
having a specialist response mechanism at National Level to effectively respond to
disasters. NDRF has proved its importance in achieving the distinction of having
highly skilled manpower, rescue and relief operations, regular and intensive training
and re-training, capacity building & familiarization exercises within the area of
responsibility of respective NDRF Bns, carrying out mock drills and joint exercises
with the various stakeholders. Vision of NDRF is to emerge as the most visible and
vibrant multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled, high-tech force capable to deal with all types
of natural as well as manmade disasters and to mitigate the effects of disasters.

Role and Mandate of NDRF Specialized response during disasters

 Proactive deployment during impending disaster situations Acquire and
continually upgrade its own training and skills Liaison, Reconnaissance, Rehearsals
and Mock Drills Impart basic and operational level training to State Response Forces
(Police, Civil Defence and Home Guards) All NDRF Bns are actively engaged in
various Community Capacity Building Programmes, Public Awareness Campaigns
and Exhibitions : Posters, Pamphlets, literatures

Unique Force
The only dedicated disaster response force of the world. The only agency with
comprehensive response capabilities having multi-disciplinary and multiskilled, high-
tech, stand alone nature. Experienced paramilitary personnel specially trained and
equipped for disaster response. Capabilities for undertaking disaster response,
prevention, mitigation and capacity building.

Organisation :
At present, National Disaster Response Force consists of ten battalions, three each
from the BSF and CRPF and two each from CISF and ITBP. Each battalion have 18
self-contained specialist search and rescue teams of 45 personnel each including
engineers, technicians, electricians, dog squads and medical/paramedics. The total
strength of each battalion is 1,149. Union cabinet has also approved the
conversion/up-gradation of 02 Bns from SSB. All the ten battalions have been
equipped and trained to respond natural as well as man-made disasters. Four battalions
of them are also trained and equipped for response during chemical, biological,
radiological and nuclear (CBRN) emergencies.

The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) was constituted under an Act
of Parliament with a vision to play the role of a premier institute for capacity
development in India and the region. The efforts in this direction that began with the
formation of the National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) in 1995 gained
impetus with its redesignation as the National Institute of Disaster Management
(NIDM) for training and capacity development. Under the Disaster Management Act
2005, NIDM has been assigned nodal responsibilities for human resource
development, capacity building, training, research, documentation and policy
advocacy in the field of disaster management.

Both as a national Centre and then as the national Institute, NIDM has performed a
crucial role in bringing disaster risk reduction to the forefront of the national agenda.
The Institute believes that disaster risk reduction is possible only through promotion
of a "Culture of Prevention" involving all stakeholders. The Institute works through
strategic partnerships with various ministries and departments of the central, state and
local governments, academic, research and technical organizations in India and abroad
and other bi-lateral and multi-lateral international agencies.

NIDM is proud to have a multi-disciplinary core team of professionals working in

various aspects of disaster management. In its endeavour to facilitate training and
capacity development, the Institute has state-of-the-art facilities like class rooms,
seminar hall and video-conferencing facilities etc. The Institute has a well-stocked
library exclusively on the theme of disaster management and mitigation. The Institute
provides training in face-to-face, on-line and self-learning mode as well as satellite
based training. In-house and off-campus face-to-face training to the officials of the
state governments is provided free of charge including modest boarding and lodging
facilities.

NIDM provides Capacity Building support to various National and State level
agencies in the field of Disaster Management & Disaster Risk Reduction. The
Institute's vision is to create a Disaster Resilient India by building the capacity at all
levels for disaster prevention and preparedness.

All State Governments are mandated under Section 14 of the act to establish a
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA). The SDMA consists of the Chief
Minister of the State, who is the Chairperson, and no more than eight members
appointed by the Chief Minister. State Executive Committee is responsible (Section
22) for drawing up the state disaster management plan, and implementing the National
Plan. The SDMA is mandated under section 28 to ensure that all the departments of
the State prepare disaster management plans as prescribed by the National and State
Authorities.

The Chairperson of District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) will be the

Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner of the district. The elected
representative of the area is member of the DDMA as an ex officio co-Chairperson,
(Section 25)

Disaster Management and Planning:

Many regions in India are highly vulnerable to natural and other disasters on account
of geological conditions. Disaster management has therefore emerged as a high
priority. Going beyond the historical focus on relief and rehabilitation after the
catastrophe, there is a need to look ahead and plan for disaster preparedness and
mitigation. So, the development process needs to be sensitive towards disaster
prevention, preparedness as well as mitigation to ensure that periodic shocks to
development efforts are minimised.

About 60 per cent of the landmass in India is susceptible to earthquakes and over 8 per
cent is prone to floods. Of the nearly 7,500 km long coastline, more than 5,500 km is
prone to cyclones. Around 68 per cent area is also susceptible to drought. All this
entails huge economic losses and causes developmental setbacks.

However, India’s commitment to mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the

process of development planning at all levels so as to achieve sustainable development
is yet to be carried forward across sectors through actionable programmes for
achieving the desired result.

Tenth Five Year Plan Strategy and Approach:

The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07) recognised disaster management as a

development issue for the first time. It was prepared in the backdrop of the Orissa
super cyclone (1999) and the massive Gujarat earthquake (2001). Later the Tsunami
in the Indian Ocean which devastated coastal communities in Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Puducherry and Andaman in 2004 became the tipping point for
initiating a series of steps by the government. India became one of the first countries
to declare a national commitment to set up appropriate institutional mechanisms for
more effective disaster management at the national, state and district levels. The
Disaster Management Bill was subsequently adopted unanimously.

The Plan devoted a separate article to disaster management and made a number of
important prescriptions to mainstream disaster risk reduction into the process of
development. The prescriptions were broadly divided into three categories:

I. Policy guidelines at macro level to inform and guide the preparation and
implementation of development plans-across sectors.

II. Operational guidelines for integrating disaster management practices into

development plans and programmes, and

III. Specific developmental schemes for prevention and mitigation of disasters.

The significant initiatives on disaster management taken during the Plan period
included the following:

i. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 was enacted for establishing requisite
institutional mechanisms for drawing up and monitoring the implementation of
disaster management plans, and for undertaking a holistic, coordinated, and prompt
response to any disaster situation.

ii. Setting up of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) as an apex

body responsible for laying down of policies, plans and guidelines on disaster
management so as to ensure timely and effective response to disasters.

iii. The guidelines on management of earthquake, chemical disasters, and chemical

(industrial) disasters were finalised during the Plan period.

iv. Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Mizoram,

Puducherry, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh have constituted State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs). The other states and UTs are in the process of constituting the
same.

v. An eight battalion-strong National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) was set up

comprising 144 specialised response teams on various types of disasters of which
around 72 are for nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) disasters.

vi. Revamping of the civil defence set-up to strengthen local efforts for disaster
preparedness and effective response. Fire services also strengthened and modernised
to a multi-hazard response force.
vii. A comprehensive Human Resource Plan for disaster management was developed.

viii. Inclusion of disaster management in the curriculum of middle and secondary

school education. The subject has also been included in the post-induction and in-
service training of civil and police officers. Modules have also been identified to
include disaster management aspects in the course curriculum for engineering,
architecture, and medical degrees.

ix. The National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM) was established as the
apex training institute for disaster management in India.

x. Model-building by-laws for town and country planning legislations, land use
zonation, development control legislations were finalised.

xi. The Bureau of Indian Standards issued building codes for construction of different
types of buildings in different seismic zones in India. The National Building Code was
also revised, taking into consideration the natural hazards and risks of various regions
of India.

xii. Implementation of the National Programme for Capacity Building of Engineers in

Earthquake Risk Management to train 10,000 engineers and 10,000 architects on safe
construction techniques and architectural practices.

xiii. A web-enabled centralised inventory of resources was developed to minimise

response time in emergencies. Over 1, 10,000 records from 600 districts have already
been uploaded.

xiv. Sale construction practices and “dos” and “don’ts” for various hazards were also
disseminated for creating public awareness.

Eleventh Plan Strategies and Initiatives:

The Eleventh Plan (2008-2013) aims at consolidating the entire process of disaster
management by giving impetus to projects and programmes that develop and nurture
the culture of safety and integration of disaster prevention and mitigation into the
development process. To assist the Planning Commission in appraisal of projects,
broad and generic guidelines which are not disaster or theme specific have to be
adopted.

Conceptualisation of hazard scenarios and associated vulnerability and risk

assessments in a given situation will necessarily have to depend on available maps,
master plans and building and land use regulations, National Building Code of India,
and the various Safety Standards and Codes of the Bureau of Indian Standards. The
guidelines will cover the following aspects in the Eleventh Plan:
i. Multi-hazard prone area/district recognised by the NDMA will be reported in the
revised National Building Code of India of the Bureau of Indian Standards.

ii. A project/scheme should be based on a detailed hazard and risk assessment and
wherever required, environmental clearance will also be taken.

iii. All major stages of project/scheme development, namely, planning, site

investigations and designs, will be subject to a process of rigorous peer review and
will be accordingly certified.

iv. All schemes for generating basic input data for hazard and vulnerability impact
analysis to be made operational.

v. Mainstreaming disaster reduction into already approved projects in sectors of

education, housing, infrastructure, urban development, and the like. Design of school
buildings under the programme would include hazard resistant features, in multi-
hazard prone (earthquake, cyclone, flood), high-risk areas. Similarly, existing
infrastructure like bridges and roads will also be strengthened and upgraded to
mitigate disaster at a subsequent stage.

Outside the framework of Plan schemes, many innovative measures will also be
adopted to encourage disaster risk reduction measures in the corporate sector, non-
government organisations, and among individuals.

Role of Social Worker in Disaster Management- Pre and Post Disaster Situation

In social work research, disasters are seen as a type of collective stress

situation, in which many individuals fail to have their needs met through societal
processes (Barton, 1969). A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or
environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community
or society to cope using its own resources.
According to WHO: A disaster is an occurrence disrupting the normal
conditions of existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the capacity of
adjustment of the affected community. Disaster is an accident or event which occurs
and is beyond human control. Its cause can be technological. social-political or natural
(Lyon, 1999). Tropical storms, fires, floods, earthquakes, transportation accidents.
mass murders. building collapses, nuclear plant malfunctions, terrorist bombings, and
many other disasters occur throughout our country each year. Involvement of social
workers in Disaster Management
The roles of social workers have changed since its beginning as assistants in
charitable organizations around the 1870s. Today, social workers are found in a range
of positions including casework, community development, policy and planning, and
management. The social work profession has a commitment to people where social
welfare is one of its basic principles. Disaster is one area where social work gives a lot
of attention. social worker can play an important and active role in managing disaster
problems and needs during and after the disasters. Social work intervention can be
done by social work administration and can be managed before, during and after
disaster.
In Disaster Context Social Workers Deal With – physical, emotional, psychosocial
impacts to victims and other persons near the location. Aims Of Social Workers
Disaster Management: reduce (avoid, if possible) the potential losses from hazards ,
assure prompt and appropriate assistance to victims when necessary, achieve rapid and
durable recovery
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER- PRE DISASTER SITUATION The evolution
of social work as a distinct activity has been closely related to the development of
state intervention and provision in the broad field of social welfare. The term social
welfare used here includes policies related to health, education, housing, and income
support measures as well as community development, or more narrowly defined as
social services (Midgley, 1995). The term social welfare used here includes policies
related to health, education, housing, and income support measures as well as
community development, or more narrowly defined as social services (Midgley,
1995). It enables a reduction in the number and severity of disasters, through
prevention and mitigation, as well as improved emergency response, through
preparation and planning
1. Policy development: Policy development is needed at national, provincial/district
and local levels to ensure that common goals are set and common approaches are
used. Without a shared disaster management policy that applies to all relevant sectors
and all levels, prevention, preparedness and response are likely to be fragmented,
badly coordinated and ineffective (World Health Organization, 1999a). An active
participation of Social Workers is required in developing and monitoring policies for
disaster management. For example in Pakistan social workers are the part of NDMA,
formulate and enforces national disaster policies at federal and provisional levels and
collaborated closely with various government ministries, military forces, and United
Nations-based organizations
2. Risk, Vulnerability And Capacity Assessment The purpose of vulnerability and
capacity assessment (VCA)—also commonly called risk analysis or threat assessment
—is to identify hazards and their possible effects on communities. Vulnerability
assessment forms strategies for reducing the vulnerability .it enables emergency
prevention, mitigation and preparedness measures.
3. Prevention and mitigation Disaster mitigation measures are those that eliminate or
reduce the impacts and risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an
emergency or disaster occurs. Community based mitigation Locally involved people
know what the needs are,they are able to define the problems. The disaster survivors
themselves are knowledgeable about local resources and can use their skills and
knowledge so that costs are kept low. The advantage of the community-based
approach is that through local leadership housing and agriculture or health projects
can gain success.
4. Preparedness Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk
management and aims to build the capacities needed to efficiently manage all types of
emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response through to sustained
recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good
linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency
planning, stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for
coordination, evacuation and public information, and associated training and field
exercises. These must be supported by formal institutional, legal and budgetary
capacities.
The related term “readiness” describes the ability to quickly and appropriately respond
when required.
Preparedness should be in the form of money, manpower and materials
Evaluation from past experiences about risk
Location of disaster prone areas
Organization of communication, information and warning system
Ensuring co-ordination and response mechanisms
Development of public education programme
Co-ordination with media
National & international relations
Keeping stock of foods, drug and other essential commodities
5. Disaster risk reduction can be generalized as follows:
a) Initiating the process - linkage and building rapport with community
b) Community Profiling - initial understanding of disaster situation and
orientation on CBDM
c) Community Risk Assessment – participatory assessment of hazards,
vulnerabilities, capacities and people’s perception of risks
d) Formulation of Initial Disaster Risk Reduction Plan - identification of
appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures including public awareness,
training and education
e) Formation of Community Disaster Response Organization - community
organizing and mobilization, capability building in CBDMit and preparedness
f) Implementation of short-, medium-, and long-term risk reduction measures,
activities, projects and programs - implementation strategies and mechanisms;
organizational/institutional strengthening
 g) Monitoring and Evaluation - continuous improvement of disaster risk reduction
plan, documentation and dissemination of good practices for replication
6. Formulating Emergency evacuation plans for community. During a disaster
many casualties happen in public buildings, such as schools, universities, churches,
supermarkets, hotels, and offices. Lives are lost because people are unaware of the
basic precautions they should take when in a public space in an emergency.
For example, when in a panic people won’t know where to go if the emergency exits
are not well marked. Emergency and evacuation plans are so important because they
serve to guide the public to safety. To clarify, an emergency plan is a set of procedures
that serve to protect people in the building and that are operationalized during a crisis.
An evacuation plan informs people as to the paths to take in case of evacuation and
also communicates other key information, such as the contact numbers for the fire
department, the police, and the Red Cross. Despite the high vulnerability to disasters,
emergency and evacuation plans are not mandatory in Haiti. In addition to emergency
and evacuation plans, evacuation drills are also key elements of emergency
preparedness. Each public space, be it a private business, church, school, etc. has a
responsibility to complete at least two evacuation drills per year. These drills are done
in collaboration with supporting agencies, such as the Haitian Red Cross, the police,
AGERCA, and the Department of Civil Protection, and are designed to test and assure
the knowledge and understanding of emergency and evacuation procedures.
7. Early warnings Keeping in view the lessons learned from June 2015 heat wave
and consequent casualties, anticipated early warning system (EWS) is devised for
country. Non-governmental organizations play a role in raising awareness among
individuals, communities and organizations involved in early warning, particularly at
the community level. They can also assist with implementing early warning systems
and in preparing communities for natural disasters. In addition, they can play an
important advocacy role to help ensure that early warning stays on the agenda of
government policy makers. . National Institute of Disaster Management plays an
important role in capacity building of federal, provincial and district level government
officials, NGO and private sector besides the media and communities. The private
sector has a diverse role to play in early warning, including developing early warning
capabilities in their own organizations. The private sector also has a large untapped
potential to deliver warnings of disaster situations.

Social workers should play a significant role in information sharing with

communities, shelter provision, and education and mobilisation of communities
before, during and after disasters. They should work with communities to plan,
educate, and advocate for vulnerable groups; provide counselling; collaborate with
other stakeholders; provide therapy and education on safety measures; conduct
research; ensure the welfare of survivors;, and help the affected to cope and receive
welfare assistance.
Social workers can play a potentially key role in disaster recovery by facilitating
community development, restoring livelihoods, providing psychosocial support, and
building capacity in local communities. There is also a need to build capacity in the
social work profession for the integration of social, economic and environmental
dimensions in policy and practice, and to develop curricula to better prepare social
workers for the challenges ahead.
1. Damage assessment and information gathering
Damage assessment and Information Gathering Human loss: To identify immediate
emergency needs, injuries and deaths just after disaster, gather additional information.
Gathering essential health data to provide rapid and effective medical relief to
populations devastated by the effects of a disaster. Material loss: Damage assessment
conducted in depth, the government is committed and comprehensive damage
assessment of all houses, buildings and public infrastructure in the earthquake-stricken
areas. Provide more accurate damage assessment account of the rehabilitation needs,
and formed the basis of large-scale engineering and building strategy. The
participation of the private sector and state government recognizes the power private
sector and NGOs in dealing with the enormous challenges of reconstruction. Social
workers need to help settle vulnerable people, including daily life arrangement,
guidance, grief therapy and counseling, life care, integration non-governmental
resources, improving community cohesion, rebuilding families and communities.
2. Providing moral support
a) Situational supporting Usually people lose the supportive systems when occur
earthquake. The systems that have being entailed love, confidence and assurance.
Therefore, social worker should prepare supportive groups to clients in working with
survivors of earthquake. The social workers do group social work for reach to above
purpose and in this way; they accumulate the survivors to group. The survivors
integrate their experiments and feelings in adjacency of each other. Usually, this skill
is used to helping clients for psychiatric empty and prevention of emotional reaction.
b) Hopefulness making The hope is a basic antidote and the achievement agent to
goals. The hope calm individual and he/she feel that there is lifeline in
future .Generally, the despair and depression are the normal reaction of disaster and
crisis. Therefore, the first stage for making hopefulness is emotional and functional
evaluation of client. Then, social worker encourages the client for starting activities
and mobilizing his/her abilities. The encouragement of client, minimize his/her
disinterestedness feeling, inability and despair. In addition, the conceptual skills and
rational discussions should be used for acquainting of client from despair and self-
disinterestedness feeling. The social workers should use various methods for
reinforcing client and selecting new programs. The urgent refer to psychiatrist or
psychologist is necessary when these methods cannot change the disappointment
attitudes and thought disorder is perceived.
c) Consoling The consoling is ancient and helpful approach to appeasing the bereaved
clients. Especially, this skill is favorable for clients who believe to religious duties and
afterlife. The social worker may be use clergy for making hopefulness and appeasing
the individuals. Because, this religious communication is one of the best tools that
habituate the grief reaction in clients so far as they are appeased, empowered and
reactivated.
d) Solutions developing The social worker tries to concentrating client to variety and
rational solutions or proffer to client the possible solutions. In this way, the social
worker supports the client at first until decrease his/her anxiety and then help him/her
for realistic understanding disaster. Finally, the worker guides client to helpful manner
that he/she adjusts to situation and solves his/her problems.
3. Disaster Response
Disaster response is the second phase of the disaster management cycle. It consists of
a number of elements, for example; warning/evacuation, search and rescue, providing
immediate assistance, assessing damage, continuing assistance and the immediate
restoration of infrastructure. The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate
assistance to maintain life, improve health and support the morale of the affected
population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but limited aid, such as
assisting refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food, to establishing semi-
permanent settlement in camps and other locations. It also may involve initial repairs
to damaged infrastructure. The focus in the response phase is on meeting the basic
needs of the people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. The
main responsibility to address these needs and respond to a disaster lies with the
government or governments in whose territory the disaster has occurred. In addition,
Humanitarian organizations are often strongly present in this phase of the disaster
management cycle, particularly in countries where the government lacks the resources
to respond adequately to the needs.
4. Disaster Recovery
As the emergency is brought under control, the affected population is capable of
undertaking a growing number of activities aimed at restoring their lives and the
infrastructure that supports them. There is no distinct point at which immediate relief
changes into recovery and then into long-term sustainable development. There will be
many opportunities during the recovery period to enhance prevention and increase
preparedness, thus reducing vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition
from recovery to on-going development. Recovery activities continue until all systems
return to normal or better. Recovery measures, both short and long term, include
returning vital life-support systems to minimum operating standards; temporary
housing; public information; health and safety education; reconstruction; counseling
programs; and economic impact studies.
Information resources and services include data collection related to rebuilding, and
documentation of lessons learned.
a) Early Recovery In recovery, the affected population is in a more stable period of
transition. They have a place to get food and water and a temporary or transitional
shelter that can withstand wind and rain. They can go about their daily lives,
beginning to resume some kind of normal existence. Children go back to school—
though their classes may be held in a church, a tent, or some other temporary
accommodation. Those affected may not have yet recovered fully, but they have
begun to adapt to a “new normal.” Early recovery can last any number of weeks or
months—even years. While the phases from relief to recovery may follow a similar
pattern, the timeline for how quickly a particular community follows this path may
depend on its initial vulnerability, access to resources, adaptability, and other
considerations.
b) Medium to Long-Term Recovery During medium to long-term recovery, the work
of building permanent physical structures to replace tents, trailers, or plywood houses
begins, as does restoration of social structures. As permanent housing is being rebuilt,
the social fabric of communities is strengthened. Children are returning to school
buildings. Adults have renewed opportunities to improve their livelihoods and restore
their family economies. Life is finally beginning to feel stable once more.
5. Rehabilitation of Victims
The role of social worker in rehabilitation of victims of Natural Disasters is very
important as they need physical and psychological support in order to achieve
dignified life aftermath of crisis. Natural Disaster produces significant impact on the
life of sufferers. Loss of life, property, disability, death results mental agony.
Medical Social Worker plays a significant role by working in systematic and
methodological approach.
a) ‘Build Back Better’ Principle rehabilitation is carried out weeks and months after
the disaster. It involves the restoration of basic services (e.g., communications,
commuter transportation, electricity for homes),infrastructure (e.g.roads and bridges,
schools),and livelihood. The goal of this phase is not only to restore what existed
previously but also to set communities on a better and safer development path and to
facilitate resilient recovery.
b) Community-Based Needs Assessments In order to come up with a proper and
acceptable program for recovery and rehabilitation, it is also important to understand
the felt needs of affected communities. Consulting affected populations through
interviews prior to any recovery program ensures public acceptance and support of
any planned endeavour.
Needs assessment helps prioritize particular areas that need the most immediate action
for rehabilitation.
1. Infrastructure and Services
2. Community Livelihood
3. Priorities for Habitat Restoration
c) Social and Community Development Reconstruction of hospitals, community
health centers, primary health centers primary health sub-centers reconstruction and
repair of primary and secondary schools social protection for orphans, widows,
handicapped and marginalized groups repair and reconstruction of institutions of
higher education and technical Improved infrastructure rehabilitation of buildings and
private conservation and heritage buildings.

MEASURING VULNERABILITY Social workers define vulnerability in reference

to both individuals and communities. Vulnerability individual level community level.
a) Vulnerability At the individual level refers to social structural factors which
increase individuals’ probability of suffering long-term and serious social,
psychological, and health problems after a disaster.
Factors of individual vulnerability:
 Poverty and lack of household wealth means that individuals will be less likely
to recover from the material and health impacts of disasters. These individuals
are less likely to have insurance to cover disaster losses.
 Health conditions existing before disaster will likely be exacerbated by
disaster, and lack of disposable income will make it very difficult for these
low-income populations to afford health and mental health care.
 Older individuals and Children are especially vulnerable because they are
dependent on adult caregivers for survival and recovery in disasters. Because
they are developing physiologically, children are also highly vulnerable to
environmental and technological disasters
 Social isolation from neighbors, kin, and formal organizations means that
individuals and households will be unable to mobilize social capital to recover
after a disaster. Isolated individuals will have difficulty obtaining information
to help them make evacuation decisions, and to obtain relief services from
formal organizations. These individuals suffer from a lack of social support and
network ties
 Vulnerability is defined at the community level by the community’s
demographic, historical, cultural, and ecological characteristics. Communities
are vulnerable when they contain few disaster social services organizations,
and when these organizations and their programs are poorly coordinated.
 The lack of a developed disaster relief network of organizations also makes it
difficult for community members to access services after a disaster.
LINKS:
https://nidm.gov.in/genesis.asp (NIDM structure, functions)