This course aims to give a thorough overview and comprehension of the scientific,

physical, and social aspects of disasters. It emphasizes using scientific information in

practical ways and finding solutions to issues that arise in a physical setting. It aims to
close the gap between theoretical science and practical application.
 LESSON 1: DISASTERS AND HAZARDS

Learning Outcomes

 Define the concept of disasters encompassing its core elements, features, and
characteristics
 Explain the concept of hazards
 Analyze past disastrous events and their impacts on communities, economies, and the
environment

Introduction

This lesson introduces you to the basic concept of hazard, its definition, types, and its
various impacts on different exposed elements. As future disaster managers, it is
important to be knowledgeable about the different types of hazards that you may deal in
your future endeavors.

This lesson will provide you with series of activities that will help deepen your
understanding about the different hazards around us. Enjoy and keep reading!
ABSTRACTION

DISASTERS, Definition.
A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to
hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability, and capacity, leading
to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and
impacts.

The effect of the disaster can be immediate and localized but is often widespread and could last for a
long period of time. The effect may test or exceed the capacity of a community or society to cope using
its own resources, and therefore may require assistance from external sources, which could include
neighboring jurisdictions, or those at the national or international levels. (UNDRRR)

Disasters have always been a result of human interaction with nature, technology and other living
entities. Sometimes unpredictable and sudden, sometimes slow and lingering, various types of
disasters continually affect the way in which we live our daily lives.

Human beings as innovative creatures have sought new ways in which to curb the devastating effects
of disasters. However, for years human conduct regarding disasters has been reactive in nature.
Communities, sometimes aware of the risks that they face, would wait in anticipation of a disastrous
event and then activate plans and procedures. Human social and economic development has further
contributed to creating vulnerability and thus weakening the ability of humans to cope with disasters
and their effects.

Disasters impede human development. Gains in development are inextricably linked to the level of
exposure to disaster risk within any given community. In the same light, the level of disaster risk
prevalent in a community is linked to the developmental choices exerted by that community (UNDP,
2004). The link between disasters and development is well researched and documented. The fact that
disasters impact on development (e.g. a school being washed away in a flood) and development
increases or decreases the risk of disasters (e.g. introducing earthquake-resistant building techniques)
is widely accepted.

OTHER DEFINITION OF DISASTER BY SCHOLARS:

1. John Oliver (1980)

Disaster is a part of the environmental processes that is of greater than expected frequency and
magnitude and causes major “human hardship with significant damage”.
2. Susman, Okeefe, and Wisner (1983)

Disaster is the interface between an extreme physical event and a vulnerable human population.

3. Hewitt (1998)

Disasters are events in which physical agents define the problem and are derived from natural
processes of events.

4. David Alexander (1993)

Natural disasters can be thought of as quick- onset events with significant impacts on the natural
environment upon the socio- economic system. He elaborated that disasters are not defined by fixed
events but by social constructs and these are liable to change. He said that disasters are not just the
events but also the social consequences of the event.

5. Dennis Mileti (1999)

Disasters flow from overlaps of the physical, built, and social environments, but they are “social in
nature”. Humans can be seen as creating disasters through their encroachment on the physical
environment.

OTHER CONCEPTS (definitions from UNDRR):

Emergency is sometimes used interchangeably with the term disaster, as, for example, in the context
of biological and technological hazards or health emergencies, which, however, can also relate to
hazardous events that do not result in the serious disruption of the functioning of a community or
society.

Disaster damage occurs during and immediately after the disaster. This is usually measured in
physical units (e.g., square meters of housing, kilometers of roads, etc.), and describes the total or
partial destruction of physical assets, the disruption of basic services and damages to sources of
livelihood in the affected area.

Disaster impact is the total effect, including negative effects (e.g., economic losses) and positive
effects (e.g., economic gains), of a hazardous event or a disaster. The term includes economic, human,
and environmental impacts, and may include death, injuries, disease and other negative effects on
human physical, mental and social well-being.
HAZARD, Definition.
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood and services, social and economic disruption,
or environmental damage.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
NATURAL HAZARDS

 produced by complex interactions between naturally occurring hazards, such as earthquakes

or powerful tropical cyclones; the exposure of people, infrastructure, and other assets to those
hazards; and the level and nature of vulnerability of those people and assets

MAN – MADE HAZARDS

 A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including accidents, dangerous

procedures, infrastructure failures, or specific human activities.

Examples: Oil and chemical spill, forest fire, industrial pollution

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL HAZARDS

Natural Hazards and the natural disasters that result can be divided into several different categories:

Geologic Hazards/Tectonic Hazards - These are the main subject of this course and include:

 Earthquakes
 Volcanic Eruptions
 Tsunami
 Landslides
 Subsidence
 Impacts with space objects

Hydrometeorologic Hazards - These are also natural hazards but processes operating in the
atmosphere are mainly responsible. They will also be considered in this course, and include:

 Tropical Cyclones
 Tornadoes
 Droughts
 Severe Thunderstorms
 Lightening
Other Natural Hazards - These are hazards that may occur naturally, but don't fall in to either of the
categories above. They will not be considered to any great extent in this course, but include:

 Insect infestations
 Disease epidemics

Natural Hazards can also be divided into catastrophic hazards, which have devastating
consequences to huge numbers of people, or have a worldwide effect, such as impacts with large
space objects, huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide disease epidemics, and world-wide droughts. Such
catastrophic hazards only have a small chance of occurring but can have devastating results if they do
occur.

Other classifications:

Natural Hazards can also be divided into rapid onset hazards, such as Volcanic Eruptions,
Earthquakes, Flash floods, Landslides, Severe Thunderstorms, Lightening, and wildfires, which develop
with little warning and strike rapidly.

Slow onset hazards, like drought, insect infestations, and disease epidemics take years to develop.

MAN-MADE HAZARDS

Anthropogenic Hazards

These are hazards that occur as a result of human interaction with the environment.

They include Technological Hazards, which occur due to exposure to hazardous substances, such as
radon, mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal dust.

They also include other hazards that have formed only through human interaction, such as acid rain,
and contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with harmful substances, as well as the
potential for human destruction of the ozone layer and potential global warming.

EFFECTS OF HAZARDS
Hazardous process of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects.

 Primary Effects occur as a result of the process itself.

 For example, water damage during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake,
landslide, or hurricane.

 Secondary Effects occur only because a primary effect has caused them.

For example, fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and water
service as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by a landslide into a
lake or river.

 Tertiary Effects are long-term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event. These
include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the position of river
channel caused by flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption etc.
 LESSON 2: RISK, VULNERABILITY, AND
CAPACITY

Learning Outcomes

 Differentiate risk, vulnerability, and capacity

 Identify factors affecting vulnerability and capacity of communities to disasters
 Examine the relationship between hazards, vulnerability and capacity to disaster risk

Introduction

Understanding and managing disasters and the complex difficulties that communities and
societies face are based on the interaction of risk, vulnerability, and capability. The idea
of risk, vulnerability, and capacity offers a thorough method to evaluate and deal with the
possible effects of bad events in a society that is increasingly affected by a variety of
hazards, both natural and human induced.

This lesson will give you a deeper understanding about the relationship of risk,
vulnerability, and capacity and how these elements play a crucial role in disaster
readiness and risk reduction. Enjoy and keep reading!
 ACTIVITY

Barangay ABC, a rural community situated along the banks of a major river, is known to be flood-prone
due to heavy rainfall during the monsoon season. The community comprises approximately 800
households with varying levels of vulnerability and capacity to respond to flooding. The community has
basic infrastructure, but most roads and bridges are poorly constructed and prone to damage during
floods, isolating the barangay from neighboring areas. A significant portion of the community consists of
informal settlements, constructed with vulnerable materials, making them more prone to flood damage.

In addition, a substantial percentage of the population lives below the poverty line, limiting access to
resources and reducing their ability to cope with and recover from flood impacts. There are also no
established early warning system in the barangay to alert residents about impending floods, leading to
delayed evacuation and increased risks.

List 5 factors or situation which increases the vulnerability of Barangay ABC to flooding.

ANALYSIS

In support to the activity above, write down your recommendations to address each vulnerability factors
experienced by Barangay ABC. (10 pts)

Please be guided by the rubrics below.

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a
general case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and
provides discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context
ABSTRACTION
RISK, Definition.
The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a
system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a
function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity.

According to RA 10121,

“Disaster Risk” is the potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihood, assets and
services, which could occur to a particular community or a Society over some specified future
time period.

Disaster risk comprises different types of potential losses which are often difficult to quantify.
Nevertheless, with knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the patterns of population and
socioeconomic development, disaster risks can be assessed and mapped, in broad terms at least.

Acceptable risk, or tolerable risk is the extent to which a disaster risk is deemed acceptable
or tolerable depends on existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical, and
environmental conditions.

In engineering terms, acceptable risk is also used to assess and define the structural and non-
structural measures that are needed in order to reduce possible harm to people, property,
services and systems to a chosen tolerated level, according to codes or “accepted practice”
which are based on known probabilities of hazards and other factors.

Residual risk is the disaster risk that remains even when effective disaster risk reduction
measures are in place, and for which emergency response and recovery capacities must be
maintained.

Risk has various connotations within different disciplines. In general risk is defined as “the combination
of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (UNISDR, 2009).

The term risk is thus multidisciplinary and is used in a variety of contexts. Risk is usually associated
with the degree to which humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) with a particular situation (e.g. natural
hazard). The term disaster risk therefore refers to the potential (not actual and realized) disaster
losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur in a
particular community or society over some specified future time period.
Disaster risk is the product of the possible damage caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability
within a community. It should be noted that the effect of a hazard (of a particular magnitude) would
affect communities differently (Von Kotze, 1999:35). This is true because of the level of the coping
mechanisms within that particular community.

Poorer communities are therefore more at risk than communities that do have the capacity to cope.

To determine disaster risk, three aspects should be present: a hazard, vulnerability to the hazard and
some form of coping capacity.

Source: USAID. (2011). Introduction To Disaster Risk Reduction.

VULNERABILITY, Definition.
According to RA 10121,

“Vulnerability” – the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.

Vulnerability may arise from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors such as poor
design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and
awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise
environmental management.
By including vulnerability in our understanding of disaster risk, we acknowledge the fact that disaster
risk not only depends on the severity of hazard, or the number of people or assets exposed, but that it
is also a reflection of the susceptibility of people and economic assets to suffer loss and damage.

► Vulnerability is the human dimension of disasters and is the result of the range of economic,
social, cultural, institutional, political and psychological factors that shape people’s lives and the
environment that they live in.

Vulnerability can be a challenging concept to understand because it tends to mean different things
to different people and because it is often described using a variety of terms including
‘predisposition’, ‘fragility’, ‘weakness’, ‘deficiency’ or ‘lack of capacity’.

► Vulnerability is complex. Vulnerability is not simply about poverty, but extensive research over the
past 30 years has revealed that it is generally the poor who tend to suffer worst from disasters.
Poverty is both a driver and consequence of disaster risk (particularly in countries with weak
risk governance) because economic pressures force people to live in unsafe locations (see
exposure) and conditions. Poverty and the other multi-dimensional factors and drivers that create
vulnerability mean that susceptibility to the impacts of hazards is often, but not always, associated
with certain groups, including women, children, the elderly, the disabled, migrants and displaced
populations, amongst others.

FACTORS OF VULNERABILTY
Vulnerability relates to a number of factors, including:

1. Physical factors

► e.g., poor design and construction of buildings, unregulated land use planning, etc.

2. Social factors

► e.g., poverty and inequality, marginalization, social exclusion and discrimination by gender, social
status, disability and age (amongst other factors) psychological factors, etc.

An example on social factors: Older adults' independence is most significant factor for

vulnerability in hot weather

3. Economic factors

► e.g., the uninsured informal sector, vulnerable rural livelihoods, dependence on single industries,
globalization of business and supply chains, etc.

An example on economic factors: Secure food supply chain

4. Environmental factors

► e.g., poor environmental management, overconsumption of natural resources, decline of risk

regulating ecosystem services, climate change, etc. An example on environmental
factors: Severe air pollution can heighten Covid-19 risk in South Asia

In addition, vulnerability is determined by historical, political, cultural and institutional and natural
resource processes that shape the social and environmental conditions people find themselves existing
within. These processes produce a range of immediate unsafe conditions such as living in dangerous
locations or in poor housing, ill-health, political tensions or a lack of local institutions or preparedness
measures.

Many of the underlying drivers of vulnerability, including poorly managed urban development, are
increasing, resulting in vulnerability increasing in many countries and regions of the world. While
evidence suggests that wealthier, well governed countries are able to reduce disaster risks, some
countries have exhibited rapid economic growth in the last few decades without a commensurable rate
of vulnerability reduction.

By including vulnerability in our understanding of disaster risk, we acknowledge the fact that disaster
risk not only depends on the severity of hazard or the number of people or assets exposed, but that it is
also a reflection of the susceptibility of people and economic assets to suffer loss and damage. Levels
of vulnerability (and exposure) help to explain why some non-extreme hazards can lead to extreme
impacts and disasters, while some extreme events do not. In the context of extensive risk in particular,
it is often people’s vulnerability that is the greatest factor in determining their risk.

In the context of different hazards, some groups are more susceptible to damage, loss and suffering
than others and likewise (within these groups) some people experience higher levels of vulnerability
than others. Vulnerable groups find it hardest to reconstruct their livelihoods following a disaster, and
this in turn makes them more vulnerable to the effects of subsequent hazard events. Consequently, we
have to reduce vulnerability in order to reduce disaster risk.

CAPACITY, Definition.
According to RA 10121,

“Capacity” – a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community,

society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or effects of a disaster. Capacity may
include infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as
human knowledge, skills and collective attributes such as social relationships, leadership and
management. Capacity may also be described as capability.
The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and good management, both in normal
times as well as during disasters or adverse conditions. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of
disaster risks.

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT is the process by which people, organizations and society systematically
stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals.

INTERACTION OF HAZARDS, VULNERABILITY AND DISASTER

RISK
In this section we will examine how the interaction between hazards and vulnerability translate into
disaster risk.

The identification of these factors provides the basis for the prioritization of initiatives which will
contribute to reducing vulnerability and thus to eliminating and/or reducing disaster risk. The initiatives
so prioritized should then be integrated by the various spheres of government into sustainable
development and disaster risk reduction planning.

Disaster risk reduction is only valuable once one understands the contexts in which people live, the
changing environment in which they find themselves, the impact of this environment on their ability to
sustain their livelihoods and the presence of a number of natural forces (natural hazards).

Hazards in themselves do not constitute disasters. The magnitude of a disaster is usually described in
terms of the adverse effects which a hazard has had on lives, property and infrastructure;
environmental damage; and the costs attached to post disaster recovery and rehabilitation. In other
words there is a direct link between the capacity of those affected to withstand, cope and recover from
the adverse affects of a hazard using only their own resources, and what constitutes disaster risk. Put
simply disaster risk is the product of the combination of three elements – vulnerability, coping
capacity and hazard (UNISDR 2002:41).

The following notation illustrates this interaction:

Source: Risk dimensions, categories and components retrieved from Bangladesh INFORM Sub-
National Risk Index 2022, UNDRR (2022)
APPLICATION
Research on past disasters that happened in the Philippines and discuss how we can reduce future
occurrence of similar events. (10 pts.)

Rubrics:

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a
general case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and
provides discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context
 “Learning never exhausts the mind.”

– Leonardo Da Vinci

LESSON 3: DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

AND DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

Learning Outcomes

 Define disaster risk reduction and disaster risk management

 Explain the different components of DRR
 Differentiate the four thematic areas of disaster management

Introduction

The recognition that disasters are more than haphazard occurrences and frequently
emerge from the interaction of natural hazards and the vulnerability of exposed
communities is the core of disaster risk reduction and management. In order to avert
catastrophes or lessen their effects when they do occur, DRRM aims to identify and
 ACTIVITY

1. What are some ways that you can think of to reduce disaster risks? (10 pts.)

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS
1. What is the significance of prioritizing disaster risk reduction efforts in the local, regional, and national
level?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Rubrics for the Activity and Analysis:

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a
general case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and
provides discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context
ABSTRACTION
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
As defined under RA 10121, disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing
disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters,
including through reduced exposures to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property,
wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events

Disaster risk reduction is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing
residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of
sustainable development.

Disaster risk reduction is the policy objective of disaster risk management, and its goals and
objectives are defined in disaster risk reduction strategies and plans.

Disaster risk reduction is everyone's business.

► Disaster risk reduction includes disciplines like disaster management, disaster mitigation and
disaster preparedness, but DRR is also part of sustainable development. In order for
development activities to be sustainable they must also reduce disaster risk. On the other
hand, unsound development policies will increase disaster risk - and disaster losses. Thus,
DRR involves every part of society, every part of government, and every part of the
professional and private sector.

Since we cannot reduce the severity of natural hazards, the main opportunity for reducing risk lies in
reducing vulnerability and exposure. Reducing these two components of risk requires identifying and
reducing the underlying drivers of risk, which are particularly related to poor economic and urban
development choices and practice, degradation of the environment, poverty and inequality and climate
change, which create and exacerbate conditions of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Addressing
these underlying risk drivers will reduce disaster risk, lessen the impacts of climate change and,
consequently, maintain the sustainability of development.

DRR vs. Disaster Risk Management

The policy objective of anticipating and reducing risk is called disaster risk reduction (DRR). Although
often used interchangeably with DRR, disaster risk management (DRM) can be thought of as the
implementation of DRR, since it describes the actions that aim to achieve the objective of
reducing risk.
FOUR THEMATIC AREAS
 APPLICATION
Disaster risk reduction plays a crucial role in building resilient communities and safeguarding lives and
property. Discuss the significance of disaster risk reduction in the context of natural and human-induced
hazards. (10 pts.)

ASSESSMENT
Identify and analyze the key components of an effective disaster risk reduction strategy and illustrate
how such measures can lead to enhanced preparedness, mitigation, and response to potential
disasters.

Rubrics:

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a
general case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and
provides discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context

“Who questions much, shall learn much, and retain much.”

– Francis Bacon
 LESSON 4: TECTONIC HAZARDS
(EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS)

Learning Outcomes

 Identify various potential earthquake and tsunami hazards

 Explain the underlying causes of earthquake hazards and tsunami
 Discuss protection, mitigation, and adaptation strategies for earthquake and tsunami
hazards

Introduction

This lesson will give insights about the various potential earthquake hazards. As we all
know, earthquake is a natural occurring phenomenon in our country. We experience
constant quake each day from the mildest ones with no significant effect to the most
disastrous one with higher magnitudes.

In this lesson you will have activities that will broaden your understanding about
earthquake hazards and help you analyze the effects of the earthquake hazards. Enjoy
and keep reading!
 ACTIVITY

1. Based on the given map, describe the seismic activity of the Philippines. (10 pts.)
 ANALYSIS
1. Give reasons why we should mainstream earthquake preparedness in the Philippines. (10 pts)

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Rubrics for the Activity and Analysis:

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a
general case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated
case for the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and
provides discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context
ABSTRACTION

Most earthquakes occur along zones where the Earth's crust is undergoing deformation.
Deformation results from plate tectonic forces and gravitational forces. The type of deformation
that takes place during an earthquake generally occurs along zones where rocks fracture to
produce faults. Before we can understand earthquakes, we first must explore deformation of
rocks and faulting.

Within the Earth rocks are constantly subjected to forces that tend to bend, twist, or fracture
them. When rocks bend, twist or fracture they are said to deform or strain (change shape or
size). The forces that cause deformation are referred to as stresses. To understand rock
deformation, we must first explore stress and strain.

Stress and Strain

Stress is a force applied over an area. One type of stress that we are all used to is a uniform
stress, called pressure. A uniform stress is where the forces act equally from all directions. In
the Earth the pressure due to the weight of overlying rocks is a uniform stress and is referred to
as confining stress. If stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is a differential
stress.

Three kinds of differential stress occur.

1. Tensional stress (or extensional stress), which stretches rock;

2. Compressional stress, which squeezes rock; and

3. Shear stress, which result in slippage and translation.

Stages of Deformation
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it changes its shape, size or volume. Such a
change in shape, size or volume is referred to as strain.  When stress is applied to rock, the
rock passes through 3 successive stages of deformation.

 Elastic Deformation -- wherein the strain is reversible.

 Ductile Deformation -- wherein the strain is irreversible.

 Fracture -- irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.

Evidence of Former Deformation

Evidence of deformation that has occurred in the past is
very evident in crustal rocks. For example, sedimentary
layers and lava flows generally are deposited on a
surface parallel to the Earth's surface (nearly horizontal).
Thus, when we see such layers inclined instead of
horizontal, evidence of an episode of deformation is
present.
FAULTS
Faults occur when brittle rocks fracture and there is
an offset along the fracture. When the offset is small,
the displacement can be easily measured, but
sometimes the displacement is so large that it is
difficult to measure.

A fracture plane in the earth’s crust across which

relative displacement has occurred.

Types of faults

 Dip Slip Faults

 1. Normal Faults - are faults that result

from horizontal tensional stresses in
brittle rocks and where the hanging-wall
block has moved down relative to the
footwall block.

2. Reverse Faults - are faults that result from

horizontal compressional stresses in brittle
rocks, where the hanging-wall block has
moved up relative the footwall block.
  Strike-slip faults- are faults where the relative motion on the fault has taken place along
a horizontal direction.

Such faults result from shear stresses acting in the crust. Strike slip faults can be of two
varieties, depending on the sense of displacement.

To an observer standing on one side of the fault and looking across the fault, if the block
on the other side has moved to the left, we say that the fault is a left-lateral strike-slip
fault. If the block on the other side has moved to the right, we say that the fault is
a right-lateral strike-slip fault.

Example: The famous San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a right-lateral strike-slip
fault. Displacements on the San Andreas fault are estimated at over 600 km.
Other types of faults:

Blind Faults - are faults that does not break the surface - rocks above the fault have behaved
in ductile fashion and folded over the tip of the fault.

Active Faults- An active fault is one that has shown recent displacement and likely has the
potential to produce earthquakes. Since faulting is part of the deformation process, ancient
faults can be found anywhere that deformation has taken place in the past. Thus, not every fault
one sees is necessarily an active fault. 
How are faults developed?
When tectonic forces generate stress, rocks start to deform elastically. Eventually small cracks
to form along the fault zone. When rupture occurs, the stored elastic energy is released as
seismic waves.

Seismology, the science of earthquakes.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves and what they tell us about Earth
structure. Seismology is a data-driven science, and its most important discoveries usually result
from analysis of new data sets or development of new data analysis methods.

Most seismologists spend most of their time studying seismograms, which are simply a record
of Earth motion at a particular place as a function of time.

Example of a seismogram

Earthquakes, definition.
Earthquakes occur when energy stored in elastically strained rocks is suddenly
released. This release of energy causes intense ground shaking in the area near the source of
the earthquake and sends waves of elastic energy, called seismic waves, throughout the Earth.
Earthquakes can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, and sudden slippage along
faults. Earthquakes are definitely a geologic hazard for those living in earthquake prone areas,
but the seismic waves generated by earthquakes are invaluable for studying the interior of the
Earth.

Elastic- rebound theory

The elastic rebound theory suggests that if slippage along a fault is hindered such that
elastic strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks on either side of the fault, when
the slippage does occur, the energy released causes an earthquake.

This theory was discovered by making

measurements at a number of points across a
fault. Prior to an earthquake it was noted that the
rocks adjacent to the fault were bending. These
bends disappeared after an earthquake
suggesting that the energy stored in bending the
rocks was suddenly released during the
earthquake.

Friction between the blocks then keeps the fault from moving again until enough strain has
accumulated to overcome the friction and generate another earthquake. Once a fault forms, it
becomes a zone of weakness - so long as the tectonic stresses continue to be present
more earthquakes are likely to occur on the fault.  

Why do earthquakes happen?

Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks and there is rapid
motion along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the
ground shake. During and after the earthquake, the plates or blocks of rock start moving—and
they continue to move until they get stuck again.

The spot underground where the rock first breaks is called the focus, or hypocenter of the
earthquake. The place right above the focus (at the ground surface) is called the epicenter of
the earthquake.
EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY
1. Focus (of an earthquake) or Hypocenter – The point at which the rupture occurs; (It marks
the origin of the kinetic waves of an earthquake).

2. Epicenter – The point of the earth’s surface directly above the focus or hypocenter of an
earthquake.

3. Fault – A fracture plane in the earth’s crust across which relative displacement has occurred.
(Location of slippage between the earth’s plates).

4. Fault Zones – The zone surrounding a major fault, consisting of numerous interlacing small
faults.

5. Aftershock – One of a series of smaller quakes following the main shock of the earthquake.

6. Magnitude - A measure of earthquake size which describes the amount of energy released.
7. Intensity - A subjective measure of the force of an earthquake at a particular place as
determined by its effects on persons, structures, and earth materials. Intensity is a measure of
energy.

8. Seismicity - The worldwide or local distribution of earthquakes in space and time; a general
term for the number of earthquakes in a unit of time, or for relative earthquake activity.

9. Seismograph - A device, which writes or tapes a permanent, continuous record of earth

motion, a seismogram.

10. Isoseismals - Map contours drawn to define limits of estimated intensity of shaking for a
given earthquake.

Why do we need to report the epicenter of an earthquake?

It is important to people hearing the reports of a major earthquake to know approximately where
the earthquake is located.

Scientists know people can get a better understanding where an earthquake occurred if they
give the information relative to towns and cities in an area.

Magnitude vs. Intensity

There are two ways by which we can measure the strength of an earthquake: magnitude and
intensity. Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at the focus. It is
calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument called seismograph. 

Intensity on the other hand, is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in
a certain locality. It is a numerical rating based on the relative effects to people, objects,
environment, and structures in the surrounding. 

According to British Geological Survey,

Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with distance from the
earthquake. Intensity, however, describes the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake at a
given place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicenter. 

For magnitude:
1. Richter Scale

Developed by a geologist named Charles Richter at the California Institute of Technology in the
1930s.

A logarithmic Richter scale measures energy release during plate movements—an increase of 1
in magnitude corresponds to a 10-fold increase in the amplitude of shaking. In other words, a
two is 10 times more intense than a one and a three is 100 times greater. In the case of the
Richter scale, the increase is in wave amplitude. That is, the wave amplitude in a level 6
earthquake is 10 times greater than in a level 5 earthquake, and the amplitude increases 100
times between a level 7 earthquake and a level 9 earthquake. The amount of energy released
increases 31.7 times between whole number values.

For intensity:

1. Modified Mercalli Scale

Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the observations of the people
who experienced the earthquake, and the amount of damage that occurred, to estimate its
intensity.

The Mercalli scale was designed to do just that The original scale was invented by Giuseppe
Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry Wood and Frank Neumann in 1931 to become what
is now known as the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. To help distinguish it from magnitude
scales, the MMI scale uses roman numerals.

Although the Mercalli scale does not use scientific equipment to measure seismic waves, it has
been very useful for understanding the damage caused by large earthquakes. It has also been
used extensively to investigate earthquakes that occurred before there were seismometers.
Some factors that affect the amount of damage that occurs are:

 the size (magnitude) of the earthquake

 the distance from the epicenter,

 the depth of the earthquake,

 the building (or other structure) design,

 and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on.

Different building designs hold up differently in an earthquake and the farther you are from the
earthquake, the less damage you'll usually see. Whether a building is built on solid rock or sand
makes a big difference in how much damage it sustains. Solid rock usually shakes less than
sand, so a building built on top of solid rock shouldn't be as damaged as it might if it was sitting
on a sandy lot.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

Image from: USGS

2. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) 

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) is a
measure of how an earthquake is felt in a certain area, based on the relative effects of an
earthquake on structures and surroundings. It is represented by Roman numerals with Intensity
I as the weakest and Intensity X the strongest. It has been used since 1996, replacing
the Rossi-Forel scale.
PHILIPPINE CONTEXT

PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

Earthquake Generators in the Philippines

HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH EARTHQUAKES:

1. Ground Motion

Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves, especially surface waves, near
the epicenter of the earthquake are responsible for the most damage during an earthquake.

The intensity of ground shaking depends on:

 Local geologic conditions in the area. In general, loose unconsolidated sediment is

subject to more intense shaking than solid bedrock.
  Size of the Earthquake. In general, the larger the earthquake, the more intense is the
shaking and the duration of the shaking.

 Distance from the Epicenter. Shaking is most severe near the epicenter and drops off
away from the epicenter. The distance factor depends on the type of material underlying
the area.

 Damage to structures from shaking depends on the type of construction. Concrete

and masonry structures are brittle and thus more susceptible to damage wood and steel
structures are more flexible and thus less susceptible to damage.

2. Faulting and Ground Rupture

Ground rupture generally occurs only along the fault zone that moves during the earthquake.
Thus, structures that are built across fault zones may collapse, whereas structures built
adjacent to, but not crossing the fault may survive.

Bohol Earthquake (2013)

 Dalton Pass, Nueva Vizcaya, 1990

3. Aftershocks

These are usually smaller earthquakes that occur after a main earthquake, and in most cases,
there are many of these (1260 were measured after the 1964 Alaskan Earthquake). Aftershocks
occur because the main earthquake changes the stress pattern in areas around the epicenter,
and the crust must adjust to these changes. Aftershocks are very dangerous because they
cause further collapse of structures damaged by the main shock.

4. Fire

Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because power lines may be knocked down and
because natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake, fires are often started closely
following an earthquake. The problem is compounded if water lines are also broken during the
earthquake since there will not be a supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have
started. In the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco more than 90% of the damage to buildings
was caused by fire.
5. Liquefaction

Liquefaction is a process that occurs in water-saturated unconsolidated sediment due to

shaking. In areas underlain by such material, the ground shaking causes the grains to lose grain
to grain contact, and thus the material tends to flow.

According to USGS,

Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near the ground
surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking. Liquefaction occurring beneath
buildings and other structures can cause major damage during earthquakes. For example, the
1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread liquefaction in Niigata, Japan which destroyed
many buildings.

Also, during the 1989 Loma Prieta, California earthquake, liquefaction of the soils and debris
used to fill in a lagoon caused major subsidence, fracturing, and horizontal sliding of the ground
surface in the Marina district in San Francisco.
6. Landslides

In mountainous regions subjected to earthquakes ground shaking may trigger landslides, rock
and debris falls, rock and debris slides, slumps, and debris avalanches.  These are secondary
effects.

Marcos Highway, Benguet 1990

7. Fault Creep

Fault creep means slow ground displacement of a strike-slip fault or dip-slip fault, that usually
occurs without accompanying earthquakes.

Creep is steady fault movement, varying from continuous to episodic with creep events lasting
minutes to days. Generally creep occurs without any associated earthquake activity
(i.e., aseismic.) 

TSUNAMI
Tsunami is a secondary effect that are giant ocean waves that can rapidly travel across oceans,
as will be discussed in more detail later. Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level and along
coastal areas can generate tsunami, which can cause damage thousands of kilometers away on
the other side of the ocean. 

Tsunamis are giant ocean waves that can rapidly travel across oceans, as will be discussed in
more detail later. Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level and along coastal areas can
generate tsunamis, which can cause damage thousands of kilometers away on the other side of
the ocean.
HOW ARE TSUNAMIS GENERATED?
1. Earthquakes

Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the seafloor. Thus, earthquakes that
occur along coastlines or anywhere beneath the oceans can generate tsunami.

The size of the tsunami is usually related to the size of the earthquake, with larger tsunami
generated by larger earthquakes. But the sense of displacement is also important. Tsunami is
generally only formed when an earthquake causes vertical displacement of the seafloor.

2. Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanoes that occur along coastal zones, like in Japan and island arcs throughout the world,
can cause several effects that might generate a tsunami.

Explosive eruptions can rapidly emplace pyroclastic flows into the water, landslides and debris
avalanches produced by eruptions can rapidly move into water, and collapse of volcanoes to
form calderas can suddenly displace the water.

3. Landslides

Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate tsunami. Most such landslides
are generated by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. As previously mentioned, a large landslide
or debris avalanche fell into Lituya Bay, Alaska in 1958 causing a wave with a run-up of about
60 m as measured by a zone completely stripped of vegetation.
TSUNAMI MOVEMENT
► Once a tsunami forms, its speed depends on the depth of the ocean. In the deep ocean,
a tsunami can move as fast as a jet plane, over 500 mph, and its wavelength, the
distance from crest to crest, may be hundreds of miles. 

TSUNAMI FORECASTING
► Scientists cannot predict when and where the next tsunami will strike. But the tsunami
warning centers know which earthquakes are likely to generate tsunamis and can issue
messages when one is possible. They monitor networks of deep-ocean and coastal sea-
level observation systems designed to detect tsunamis and use information from these
networks to forecast coastal impacts and guide local decisions about evacuation.

There are two types of tsunami generation: Local tsunami and Far Field or distant tsunami.

1. Local tsunami

The coastal areas in the Philippines especially those facing the Pacific Ocean, South China
Sea, Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea can be affected by tsunamis that may be generated by local
earthquakes. Local tsunamis are confined to coasts within a hundred kilometers of the
source usually earthquakes and a landslide or a pyroclastics flow. It can reach the
shoreline within 2 to 5 minutes.

2. Far field tsunami

Far field or distant tsunamis can travel from 1 to 24 hours before reaching the coast of the
nearby countries. These tsunamis mainly coming from the countries bordering Pacific Ocean
like Chile, Alaska in USA and Japan.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and Northwest Pacific Tsunami Advisory Center
(NWPTAC) are the responsible agencies that closely monitor Pacific-wide tsunami event and
send tsunami warning to the countries around the Pacific Ocean.

The Philippines is frequently visited by tsunamis. On 17 August 1976, a magnitude 8.1

earthquake in Moro Gulf produced up to 9-meter high tsunamis which devastated the southwest
coast of Mindanao and left more than 3,000 people dead, with at least 1,000 people missing.
Also on 15 November 1994 Mindoro Earthquake also generated tsunamis that left 49 casualties.
Tsunami Safety and Preparedness Measures
Each one of us in the community should learn some important Tsunami Safety and
Preparedness Measures such as the following:

1. Do not stay in low-lying coastal areas after a felt earthquake. Move to higher grounds
immediately.

2. If unusual sea conditions like rapid lowering of sea level are observed, immediately move
towards high grounds.

3. Never go down the beach to watch for a tsunami. When you see the wave, you are too close
to escape it.

4. During the retreat of sea level, interesting sights are often revealed. Fishes may be stranded
on dry land thereby attracting people to collect them. Also, sandbars and coral flats may be
exposed. These scenes tempt people to flock to the shoreline thereby increasing the number of
people at risk.

Image from: Smith, K. (2009)

 APPLICATION
You are a geology student on a field trip to a region known for its seismic activity. While
exploring the area, you and your group suddenly feel the ground shaking, and you realize you
are experiencing an earthquake. What immediate actions should you and your group take to
ensure your safety and that of others around you? Describe step-by-step what you would do
and explain the reasons behind each action.

ASSESSMENT

1. What is the difference between the epicenter and the focus of an earthquake? How are they
located?

2. Describe the concept of earthquake magnitude versus earthquake intensity. How are they
related, and how do they differ?

3. Describe the potential impacts of surface rupture and fault displacement on infrastructure and
communities located near active faults.

Rubrics for Essay questions:

0-4 provides a few comments on evidence or general meaning of topic

5-6 provides direct connections of evidence related to the issues/events

7 provides logical connections that supports a summary of the evidence and relates it to the
events/issues
8 provides discussion or analysis links evidence and discussion/analysis that fully supports a general
case for the topic

9 provides discussion/analysis that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated case for
the topic and anticipates counterexamples or views and context

10 provides analysis of evidence that fully supports a logically coherent and clearly delineated case for
the topic and addresses counterexamples, alternate interpretations or views and provides
discussion/analysis of all of the evidence and the historical context

“Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardour and diligence.”

– Abigail Adams