Introduction to

UNIT 13 INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL HAZARDS Natural Hazards

Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Hazards and Disaster
13.4 Dimensions of Hazard
13.5 Hazards Classification
13.6 Types of Natural Hazards
13.7 Effects and Service Functions of Natural Hazards
13.7.1 Effects of Natural Hazards
13.7.2 Natural Service Functions of Natural Hazards
13.8 Impacts of Hazards
13.8.1 Social Impacts
13.8.2 Economic Impacts
13.8.3 Environmental Impacts
13.9 Concept of Risk and Vulnerability
13.9.1 Factors of Vulnerability
13.9.2 Impact Assessment
13.9.3 Human Intervention and Response to Hazards
13.10 International Strategies
13.10.1 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
13.11 Let Us Sum Up
13.12 Keywords
13.13 References and Suggested Further Readings
13.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Weoften hear about the natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods, drought,
avalanches, landslides, rockfalls or cyclonesthrough the newspapers, internet, and
television. This results in loss of human lives and property.These natural hazards are
caused due to earth processes which can be both exogenic and endogenic. These
natural hazards can be devastating, and it may take years for resettlement and bouncing
back to normalcy. Urbanization and improper city planning add to the socio-economic
impacts of hazards. You have learnt about the various earth processes have been
operating on this planet throughout the geological history in the previous blocks and
units. The earth processes such as earthquakes, tsunamis or volcanic eruptions are
hazardous only because they negatively affect mankind. Our planet is an open systemwith
respect to energy, but it is a closed system as far as materials are considered. The
earth is a dynamic, evolving system with complex interactions betweeninternal and
external processes. The movement of plates, earthquakes, volcanic activities are caused
due to internal energy of the earth. Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and droughts are
caused due to external energy source. The source of energy for the internal processes 293
is essentially radioactivity, whereas the source of energy for the external processes is
Natural Hazards the Sun. The different natural hazards have different characteristics regarding their
influence and impact. In nature, one hazard can also trigger the advent of another
hazard or be simultaneously associated with one another.
Indonesia experienced the worst earthquakes in the year 2018. The Lombok earthquake
with a magnitude of 7 in the Richter scale that struck the island in August 2018 killed
approximately 460 people and damaged the buildings and structures. Understanding
the science of natural hazards forms the basis for preparedness and management. It is
essentially important to to learn about the earth processes because the present day
processes provide clue in understanding and interpreting the processes that could
have occurred in the past i.e. applying the Hutton principle of
Uniformitarismmeaning”Present is the key to the past”.
The International Early Warning Programme by the United Nations(2000) addressed
the causes of vulnerability. “This aimed for building disaster-resilient communities by
creating awareness on disaster risk reduction as an integral component of sustainable
development. The broad goal of the programme was to reduce human, economic and
environmental loss due to natural hazards (UN/ISDR, 2000)”.

13.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• define the term natural hazards and disasters;
• classify and explain the various types of natural hazards, their effects; and
• describe the concept of risk and vulnerability.

13.3 HAZARDS AND DISASTER

Now we will read about hazards and disaster.
Earth processes are natural processes occur within the lithosphere, hydrosphere or
atmosphere. Geologic processes become hazardous only when they affect life or
property Geohazards are caused due to short-term or long-term natural geological
processes. For example, tsunamis affect local and regional socio-economy to great
extent.
Hazard: A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and
risk as the probability of hazard occurrence.Hazard can also be defined as: “Those
elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces
extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has the potential to cause harm to
life, property and the environment.
Disaster: A disaster occurs when an extreme event exceeds a community’s ability to
cope with it.
Hazard Event: It is the physical parameter of the hazard event that causes harm.
Geological events are calledhazards when they cause loss and affect society and/or
the environment adversely. A physical event, such as a volcanic eruption, is called a
natural phenomenon but not a natural hazard when it does not cause loss of life and
property. A natural phenomenon that occurs in a populated area and affects life and
294 property is a hazardous event.
Natural Disaster:It is defined as a hazardous event that is caused due to the natural Introduction to
forces of the earth and causes large numbers of fatalities and/or property damage. In Natural Hazards
2016 in Italy an earthquake occurred in a densely populated area where almost 200
people died.
The long-term preparations for hazard mitigation are frequently complex and often
involve investment of substantial resources. The relationship between humans and
geologic processes is characterized by risk. The risk from natural hazards cannot be
eliminated, though in some cases it can be understood in such a way that we can
minimize the hazard to humans, and the risk. In order toacheive this we must understand
the processes that operate, and the energy required. This would help us in developing
an appropriate plan of action for minimizing the risk. Although, humans can sometimes
influence natural disasters that are considered as technological disasters, such as oil
and toxic material spills, pollution, massive auto mobile or train wrecks, air plane
crashes, and human induced explosions. As an individual we can take some steps to
prevent the extent of hazard damage. For example in regions that experience heavy
rainfall and flooding, the houses can be constructed on an elevated ground. In such
cases basement rooms should be avoided. Similarly in the areas prone to tornadoes
winds that can travel 250 to 300 miles per hour, shutters can be put for the windows
and doors for protection and prevent them from breaking or shattering.

13.4 DIMENSIONS OF HAZARD

Let us now learn about the dimension of hazards in the following paragraphs.
The impact of a disastrous event is in part a function of its magnitude (amount of
energy released) and frequency (recurrence interval). It is also influenced by many
other factors like climate, geology, vegetation, population and land use. Magnitude is
an important parameterfor analyzing hazards as event exceeding some defined level
of magnitude are considered hazardous. The extent of damage or loss is governed by
the following:
• Magnitude of the hazard
• Frequency of hazard or recurrence
The magnitude concept is the assertion that there is generally an inverse relationship
between the magnitude of an event and its frequency. In other words, the larger the
flood, the less frequently the flood occurs.
Return Period: It refers to the repeat interval or recurrence period ofa natural hazard
such as floods, windstorms or tornadoes. Most of the hazards have return periods on a
human time-scale. The inverse of probability expressed in percentages gives the estimated
period between events of a similar size or intensity. The frequency is measured in terms
of a hazard’s recurrence interval. This is calculated statistically to measure the return
period of a hazard of a given magnitude and intensity. For example, a recurrence interval
of 100 years for a flood suggests that in any year, a flood of that magnitude has a 1%
chance of occurring. Such extreme events have very low frequencies but very high
magnitudes in terms of destructive capacity. This means that an event considered being a
hundred year flood would cause severe damage compared to a five-year flood.
People can be affected, either directly or indirectly, by a hazardous event. Direct
effects include those who have suffered injury, illness or other health effects. They also 295
Natural Hazards include the people who were evacuated, displaced, relocated or have suffered direct
damage to their livelihoods, economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental
assets. Indirect effects include those who suffered consequences over time, due to
disruption or changes in economy, critical infrastructure, basic services, social, health
and psychological consequences.

13.5 HAZARDS CLASSIFICATION

You have understood the concept of hazard, disaster and the dimensions of hazards.
Let us learn about the various types of hazards in this section.
Hazards can be classified into different types.
i. Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural processes
on the earth.
ii. Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification arise through the interaction
of natural processes and human activities.
iii. Technological (or man-made) hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides to fauna,
accidental release of chemicals or radiation from a nuclear plant arise directly due
to human activities.
Natural hazards are basically natural processes, which may become hazardous when
people live or work in the areas affected by these processes. Technological hazards
occur as a result ofdirect human interaction with the environment. They include faulty
operation of valves or systems in the nuclear power stations, chemical industries
manufacturing pesticides, or phenol and other chemical explosives. Environmental
hazards are also an important aspect which is caused due to human interventions such
as the formation of acid rain, contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters and
soil with harmful substances.
Natural Hazards can also be termed as catastrophic hazards when they have
devastating consequences to larger population, or have a worldwide effect, such as
impacts huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide disease epidemics, and world-wide
droughts.
Secondary Hazards: These are hazards follow as a result of the main hazardous
event. For example,if aprimary hazard is earthquake. Secondary hazards caused due
to the primary hazard includes:
• Building collapse
• Dam failure
• Fire or spillage of hazardous materials
• Interruption of power/ water supply/ communication/ transportation/ waste disposal
• Landslide
• Soil liquefaction
• Tsunami

296 • Water pollution

Chronic Hazards: A group of hazards that do not stem from one event but arise from Introduction to
continuous conditions which accumulate over time. They include famine, resource Natural Hazards
degradation, pollution, and large-scale toxic contamination.
Rate of Onset of Hazards: Natural hazards can also be classified into rapid onset
hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, landslides, severe
thunderstorms which take place with little warning and strike rapidly or cause slow
onset hazards, like drought and disease epidemics take years to form. The speed of
onset of a hazard is an important variable since it affects warning time. Earthquake,
landslides, and flash floods generally give no warnings. Tsunamisindicate warning periods
of minutes or hours. Hurricanes and floods can be predicted and give warning signals
for its likelihoodoccurrence inseveral hours or days, in advance. Volcanoes can erupt
suddenly but usually give indications of an eruption weeks or months in advance.
Other hazards such as drought, desertification, and subsidence act slowly over a period
of months or years. Hazards such as erosion/sedimentation have varying lead times:
damage may occur suddenly as the result of a storm or may develop over many years.
Spatial Dispersion: This refers to the pattern of distribution of a hazard over the
geographic area in which the hazard can occur. It refers to the region where hazard(s)
are centred. For example, earthquakes tend to occur along the plate boundaries.
Tropical storms tend to be centred on the coastal areas in the tropics. We can prepare
and manage hazards well if the spatial distributions are mapped.
Temporal Spacing:This refers to the sequencing and seasonality of events. Some
events are quite random (volcanoes) while others have seasons (hurricanes, tropical
cyclones, river floods).
Each and every disaster has a different spatialand temporalsignatures (Table 13.1).
Table 13.1: Disaster Time and Space Characteristics
Type Impact time Spatial Extent
Earthquake Seconds to minutes 102 – 104 sq.km
Landslide Seconds 0.1 – ½ sq.km
Forest fires Minutes to days 101 – 103 sq.km
Floods Minutes to hours 105 – 107sq.km
Cyclones Few hours 103 – 104 sq.km
Drought Months to years 106 sq.km
Desertification Tens of years 107 – 108 sq.km
(Source: Navalgund, 2001).
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define hazard and disaster.
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Natural Hazards 2. How are hazards classified?
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3. Explain natural hazards with the help of case study about its impacts on life and
property.
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13.6 TYPES OF NATURAL HAZARDS

In the previous section you have read about the difference in hazard and disaster and
their impact on life and property. Now we will discuss types of natural hazards.
Natural hazards can be classified into several broad categories: geological hazards,
hydrological hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards.
Some general classifications of hazards are outlined in the Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: General Classifications of Hazards
Natural Hazards Geologic Hazards Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, avalanches, subsidence,
and impacts with space objects
Hydrological hazards Floods, tsunamis
Atmospheric Hazards Hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts,
and severe thunderstorms, lightening
Biological Hazards Insect infestations, disease, wildfires
Technological or Exposure to hazardous
Anthropogenic substances, such as radon,
Hazards mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal
dust, acid rain, contamination of
the atmosphere or surface waters
(Source: Baskar S and Baskar R., 2009).
From the Table 13.2 we can elaborate that:
(i) Geological hazards: Geological processes such as plate tectonics drive these
hazards. These events are beyond human influence.
(ii) Meteorological hazards are those hazards driven by weather processes.
Examples include heat waves, cold waves, cyclones and hurricanes. In the Atlantic
cyclones are referred to as hurricanes and in the Pacific Ocean they are referred
to as typhoons.
(iii) Hydrological hazards are hazards driven by hydrological processes. Floods,
droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis can bring about damage to property, life and
298 agricultural fields.
(iv) Biological hazards are hazards driven by biological processes. This is of major Introduction to
concern in the recent times. Infectious diseases can be zoonotic or be spread from Natural Hazards
one human to another. Vector-borne diseases such as Zika virus, Dengue,
Chikungunya and Nipah virus are on the rise that has affected millions of people in
Asia-Pacific regions. The climate variability and weather is one of factors for the
increase in incidence of such diseases. Among the biological hazards one of the
deadliest disasters in history was the bubonic plague known as the Black Death
that occurred in the 1300s, killing 100 million people.
Case Study of Biological Disaster: West Nile Virus Geographically, the
virus originated in Uganda in Africa since 1937. In the 1990’s outbreaks were
observed in Israel and Africa. Recently cases of West Nile viruses were reported
in South India especially in Kerala in 2018 and 2019. Many people were
affected by the virus which is attributed to the changing weather and vector
borne influences. This fever is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease and is caused
by the flavivirus – West Nile Virus. The state of Kerala was on high alert as a
seven-year-old boy from Mallapuram died in Kozikode due to the virus.
Mosquitoes are vectors for transmitting this deadly disease. Increasing
temperatures and humidity allow the mosquitoes to breed and reproduce.
Culex quinquefasciatus is the vector that transmits the virus. The Asian tiger
mosquito - Aedes albopictus is also a vector for the West Nile virus. The
symptoms include fever, headaches, bodyaches, fatigue, skin rash, vomiting
and diarrhea. It can also cause encephalitis and meningitis. There are various
factors that impact the transmission and distribution of the virus such as the
interactions between pathogen, vector, vertebrate hosts and the environment.
Also the weather conditions have direct and indirect influences on vector
competence (the ability to acquire, maintain and transmit the virus), on the
vector population dynamic and on the virus replication rate within the mosquito.
It is possible for an extreme event to fit within more than one of these categories. For
example, volcano eruptions (a geological event) can block incoming sunlight that can
trigger cold waves (a meteorological event). This phenomenon occurred in 1816 when
the Mount Tamboravolcanic eruption caused the ‘year without summer’ in the Northern
hemisphere. Volcano eruptions can also cause tsunamis (a hydrological event). Some
of the largest tsunamis occurred when volcanoes along coasts caused large landslides
into the water. Earthquakes (a geological event) that occur under water can also triggers
tsunami (a hydrological event)forexampleJapan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011.
CASE STUDY OF A LOMBOK EARTHQUAKE, INDONESIA 2018
On 5thAugust 2018 an earthquake measuring Mw 6.9 struck the island of Lombok,
Indonesia. A foreshock of Mw/ 6.4 was recorded on 29th July 2018 prior to the
earthquake. The epicentre was located near Loloan Village in North Lombok.
Severe shaking was observed on the island and the neighboring islands
of Bali and Sumbawa.Widespread damage was reported in Lombok and Bali. 563
people died, 1,000 were injured and more than 417,000 people were displaced.It
was one of the devastating earthquakes in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Indonesia lies
on the Pacific Ring of Fire which is an area of significant volcanic and
tectonic activity. The archipelago is situated between
the Eurasian, Pacific and Australian tectonic plates.Lombok in particular lies on
the plate boundary between the Australian and Sunda Plate. The earthquake
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Natural Hazards occurred on 19:46 local time; at a depth of 31.0 km. The epicentre of the earthquake
was located inland, on the northeastern slopes of Mount Rinjani. In certain areas in
the northwestern parts of the island, the earthquake caused the ground to rise by as
much as 25 centimeters.Following the earthquake, a tsunami warning was issued
for the North coast of Lombok. The tsunami struck at three locations and the
maximum height was 13.5 cm in Carik, North Lombok. 664 aftershocks were
recorded by 18th August 2018 below Mw/ 5.9.Most victims were killed by falling
debris due to collapsed buildings. Widespread damage was reported in Lombok
Island. Telecommunications went down and blackouts were reported throughout
Lombok.A lack of construction regulations and technical knowledge of builders
regarding earthquake resistance, coupled with low economic ability, exacerbated
the damage. At least three bridges reportedly had collapsed in Lombok. Indonesian
National Board for Disaster Management reported that the earthquake incurred a
loss of ~USD 600 million.

13.7 EFFECTS AND SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF

NATURAL HAZARDS
So far we have learnt the types of natural hazards with the help of some case studies.
Let us now learn the effects and service functions of hazards in the following paragraphs.

13.7.1 Effects of Natural Hazards

Natural hazards result in primary, secondary and tertiary effects (Table 13.3). The
secondary and tertiary effects may vary with the type of hazard. For example, cyclones
which are a primary hazard can cause secondary hazards such as flood, storm tide. In
the same way, earthquakes can cause secondary hazards such as fire, flood, landslide,
and tsunami. Each of these secondary and tertiary effects can cause more damage
than the primary event. You have read in the earlier sections that the hazards have
physical, social, and economic impacts. Physical effects include damage tothe buildings
and structures. In majority of the cases, physical impacts andsocial effectsmay includeloss
to life and property, fatalities, injuries, homelessness,disease, or loss of social cohesion.
Economic effects may include business disruption,disruption to the supply of power,
water and telecommunications and the cost of response and relief operations. Natural
hazardsbecome disastrous only when they impact communities adversely.
Table 13.3: Effects of Hazards
Primary Effects Occur as a result of Damage due to a flood,
the process itself. building collapse due to an
earthquake, landslide,
hurricane, or tornado.
Secondary Effects Occur asaconsequence Firesare ignited by
of primary effect. earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions, disruption of
electrical power and water
service as a result of an
earthquake or flood and
flooding caused by a
landslide moving into a lake
300 or river.

Tertiary Effects Long-term effects
that are set off as a
result of a primary
event.
Introduction to
Loss of habitats due to Natural Hazards
floods, agricultural crop
failure caused as a result of
volcanic eruption etc.

13.7.2 Natural Service Functions of Natural Hazards

These are the earth processes that are important natural service functions as they are
responsible for making our planet habitable. Volcanism has been responsible for
producing the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Ash and other products ejected from
volcanic eruptions can enhance soil fertility. Floods replenish soil, which sustain life.
Floodplains are also wonderful places for recreation. In the same way, bushfires can
stimulate growth and regenerate forest ecology. This is because the heat from the fire
helps some seeds to germinate (Luke and McArthur, 1977).

13.8 IMPACTS OF HAZARDS

It is important for you to understand the process by which natural disasters produce
different impacts on the community is. It is necessary to knowthe pre-impact conditions
that make communities vulnerable to disaster impacts. Also, the disaster impact
processes can be used to delineate the specific segments of the community that couldbe
affected. This information can help to decipher the event-specific conditions that
determine the level of disaster impact. Finally, the entire disaster impact process allows
policy planners to propose suitable disaster management strategies. The effects of a
particular disaster depend on three pre-impact conditions. They include: (1) hazard
exposure, (2) physical vulnerability, and (3) social vulnerability. There also are three
event-specific conditions. They include: (1) hazard event characteristics, (2) improvised
disaster responses, and (3) improvised disaster recovery. Communities can involve in
three types of emergency management interventions to manage disaster impacts in a
better way. Physical impacts can be reduced by hazard mitigation practices and
emergency preparedness practices, whereas social impacts can be reduced by recovery
preparedness practices.
Natural hazards have impacted civilizations. Natural disasters have resulted in enormous
economic and social loss. Globally, billions of dollars have been spent in trying to
mitigate or prevent, prepare for, respond to and recover from natural disasters.

13.8.1 Social Impacts

You have read that world over many people are displaced due to natural disasters.
Our natural environment have been disturbed due to anthropogenic activities whether
it the coastal regions, flood plains or the hilly regions. As a result,the natural ability of
ecosystems to cope up with disturbances is greatly diminished. The increased population
density and the built environmentexpose large populations to more economic activities
in disaster prone areas. For example, many people live within 100 kilometres of a
coastline. Many of the world’s megacities (with over 10 million inhabitants) live in
coastal zones. The effects of global warming, extreme weather events and sea level
rise, will result in loss of human lives. In the same way the floodplains in India are
densely populated. The impact of natural hazards falls disproportionately on poor
people as they are more likely to be living in vulnerable areas and they have fewer
resources to combat or recover from disasters. It is estimated that in the years 1985
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Natural Hazards and 1999, 96% of disaster fatalities were there in the developing nations. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that future impacts of
climate extremes will affect the poor disproportionately. Vietnam and Bangladesh, for
example, are projected to lose more than 70,000 square kilometres of land, affecting
some 32 million people. The entire Mediterranean coast is especially vulnerable to sea
level rise, as are the U.S.’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts. After the disaster the people are
affected with psycho physiological effects such as health disorders, depression, and
grief. They also include behavioural effects such as sleep and appetite changes, ritualistic
behaviour, and substance abuse.

13.8.2 Economic Impacts

Now let us discuss about economic impacts. Between the 1950s and 1990s there has
been a 15-fold increase in the worldwide cost as a result ofnatural disasters. Hazards
in the 1990s resulted in economic losses totaling approximately US$66billion per
annum. The Kobe earthquake that occurred in Japan also resulted in economic losses
of US$178bn. Major natural disasters have severe negative economic impacts. They
can be short or long term.This affects the growth and development of a nation. The
Sub-Saharan Africa is one among the high-risk countries, vulnerable to climatic hazards.
The economic impactsdue to natural disasters can be tremendous. For example, the
hurricane Katrina (2005)was the most expensive tropical cyclone in history in terms of
economic and insured losses. It caused economic losses of US$209 billion.Globally,
businesswas affected due to these calamities. From an economic viewpoint, it is
important to develop disaster plans in order to reduce impacts to enable supply chains
and markets to function efficiently.Similarly, several other natural calamities such as
typhoons in Philippines, floods in India, severe winter in the USA and hurricane in
Mexico that occurred in the year 2014 have caused an economic loss.Injuries, fatalities,
damage to infrastructure hampered the economic growth and development.
An example of economic and financial impacts worldwide related to disasters is cited
below. In 2001, when Japan was struck by the tsunami, several car manufacturers had
to close their factories in Europe and the USA. This was because the accessories and
parts had to come from Japan, and it had stopped. This impacted multiple suppliers in
the entire world through the supply chain reaction and hit the global economy.
Economic lossbecause of disaster can be either direct or indirect. Direct effects of
natural calamities include structural damages, loss of wages to the employees, damages
to public goods, telecommunications and loss of production which includes closure of
businesses.The indirect effects are because of direct effects. There can be changes in
GDP per capita andincreased cost of transportation.Therefore,understanding the
financial implications of disaster effects is important. An important issue is the
management towards returning to the pre-disaster conditions, in a short time period.
Economic mitigation can be done through planningalong with the relevant Ministry and
State governments. For example, flood resistant crops can be grown in flood or cyclone
prone areas.Economic diversification is another important aspect. In the countries
where the principal source of income is threatened, more economic activities should
be introduced. This will help to diversify the economy.It is extremely significant in
those countries where economies are based on a single cash crop. For example, there
are many small islands that run their economy by exporting palm oil or bananas to
other countries. These crop varieties are vulnerable to cyclone damages or heavy
storms. In such cases economic diversification into fishing practices will be an alternate
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solution that will help protect the economy against calamities. In the same way, it is Introduction to
important to develop disaster resilient economic activities. For example, in coastal Natural Hazards
areas prone to cyclones, coconut trees can be grown instead of depending only on
fruit trees.Further, insurance can be another policy interventionto mitigate disaster losses.
In majority of the developed countrieswell-developed disaster insurance culture exists.
These countries include USA, France, Norway, New Zealand, and Japan. They have
integrated disaster risk management approach where all the major sectors are
considered. Therefore, it is important for every nation to integrate natural hazard risk
management into long-term national investment policies and development strategies to
tide over economic and financial impacts.
Some success stories where countries have taken steps for disaster control are given
in the following paragraph. The 1998 flood that occurred in the Yangtze River led to an
85 % loss in the forest resources which affected 223 million people.Chinahas now
halted logging in the Yangtze River watershed. They understand that forest resources
are extremely valuable for flood control and water supply than for timber.Another
example is that of Vietnam that has restored 2,000 hectares of mangroves as they help
against the coastal storms and provide employment to a number of people involved in
fishing activities.

13.8.3 Environmental Impacts

Natural hazards impact the planet’s ecosystem. The factors taken into consideration
include the type, frequency, intensity, and area of the hazard disturbance. When the
calamities occur frequently, then only the opportunistic species, the pioneers and short-
lived organisms survive. When calamities are not that frequent, then slower-growing
species, superior competitors for resources such as light, water, and nutrients replace
the pioneers. Natural hazards can be beneficial as well as harmful. So, they offer
mixed outcomes for our environment. One example that can be cited is the thinning of
tree branches which is caused by high winds or winter storms. The branches are
covered with ice formations due to winter storms. The thinning of the branches allows
the plant to grow stronger.
Floods: Both plant and animal species have adapted escape or tolerate hazards such
as floods. If we consider the river-floodplain ecosystem, we can see how the seasonal
flows and floods have can be made more productive. Here, we find flood adapted
communities of plants and animals in the floodplain habitats which can tolerate the
hazards. Further the large river-floodplain ecosystems provideus important hydrological
and eco-service system functions. These include flood storage and conveyance; water
retention and recycling, providing a rich biodiversity; transformation of pollutants into
a resource such as useful biomass; help in fisheries production maintain forests resource;
and provide corridors for migratory fish and wildlife. The yearly floods help maintain
these ecosystems by promoting water, sediment, nutrients, and organism exchange
between the rivers and their floodplains. Therefore, they help maintain habitat and
species diversity (Sparks, 1996).
Droughts: They are damaging to the ecosystem, wildlife, wetlands, forests and the
soils. They cause severe damage toplants and animals by totally depriving them of
food and water. Thereby they become susceptible to diseases and to predators. They
result in biodiversity loss, poor water quality, increase in temperature of water, shifting
salt concentration, varied pH levels and dissolved oxygen. The lack of moisture
promotes more wildfires due high temperatures. 303
Natural Hazards Hurricanes and Tropical Storms: They can damage trees. The coastal storms result
in erosion of shores.
Earthquakes: They can affect the biodiversitydue to shifts in land surfaces, as well as
alterations in local hydrologic systems. In the 19th century, the New Madrid earthquake
in the USA changed the course of the Mississippi River and created a cut-off lake.
Earthquakes can result in the destruction of habitats, trees, and ecosystems.
Strong high winds: They can also cause large-scale destruction to trees and several
species. They can also be responsible for fires in dry regions.

13.9 CONCEPT OF RISK AND VULNERABILITY

Let us now learn about the concepts of risk and vulnerability, impact assessments and
human response to hazards.

13.9.1 Factors of Vulnerability

Vulnerability refers to how physical effects of natural hazards affect human life and
property. Vulnerability to a given hazard depends on several factors such as:
Ø Proximity to a possible hazardous event;
Ø Population density of a theregion;
Ø Construction styles, infrastructure and building codes;
Ø Basic awareness of the nature of the hazard; and
Ø Early-warning systems, lines of communication and emergency infrastructure.
In most cases, it is the less developed and under developedcountries that are more
vulnerable to natural hazards than the developed nations. This is mainly due to lack of
awareness, poor education, infrastructure andbuilding codes. Poverty is a major factor
that is related to vulnerability. This is because poverty leads to poor building structures,
population density, and lack of communication and availability of robust infrastructure.
Vulnerability can be classified into:
• human,
• agricultural,
• structural, and
• social vulnerability.
Let us discuss them. Human beings are vulnerable to natural hazards. In other words,
there is a variability in the affected population. For the same level of exposure, some
people will die, others will be severely injured, and the rest will survive. In the same
way,agricultural plants and animals are also vulnerable to natural hazards. There are
differences in level of vulnerability among and within plants and animals. Structural
vulnerability is due to the construction of buildings using designs and materials that are
not able to resistextreme events such as earthquakes. Therefore, proper building codes
are required.Social vulnerability refers to the “ability of people to anticipate, cope
with, resist and recover from the impacts of a natural hazard” (Wisner, Blakie, Canon
304
& Davis, 2004). It varies across communities and across households within communities.
13.9.2 Impact Assessment Introduction to
Natural Hazards
Hazard Assessment is also referred to as Hazard Evaluation or Hazard Analysis
(UNDRO, 1991). It is the process of estimating the probabilities of the occurrence of
potentially damagingevents of a given magnitude within a specified period of time. The
probability of a hazard occurrence differs from place to place. The use of mapping to
synthesize data on natural hazards and to overlay this information with socioeconomic
data facilitates analysis. It helps in communications among people in the hazard
management process and between planners and decision-makers.
a) Hazard Assessment considers the following:
• When and where hazards have occurred in the past?
• The magnitude and frequency of the past hazardous processes.
• Vulnerability of hazards.
• The potential impacts of a given magnitude if it were to occur.
• All this information will help public officials make decisions and prepare in event of
a disaster.
b) Risk Assessment involves the assessment of hazards from a scientific point as
well as the socio-economic impacts. Risk is a statement of probability that an event
will cause a certain amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in
monetary terms that an event will cause.
Risk assessment involveshazard assessment, identification and location of buildings,
highways, infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards, potential exposure to the
physical effects of a hazardous situation. Risk assessment helps decision makers and
scientists to compare and evaluate potential hazards, decide on priorities on what
kinds of mitigation are possible and distribute available resources.

13.9.3 Human Intervention and Response to Hazards

Human intervention: Although humans can do nothing much to change the incidence
or intensity of most natural calamities, they still have an important role to ensure that
such events do not become disastrous due to anthropogenic activities. Sometimes due
to poor understanding, human intervention can increase the frequency and severity of
natural hazards. For example, when the toe of a landslide is removed for a settlement,
the earth can move again and bury the settlement. This is disastrous and is because of
our own actions. Human intervention may also cause natural hazards, where none
existed before. Volcanoes erupt periodically, but it is not until the rich soils formed on
their surface are occupied by farms and human settlements. In that case they are
considered hazardous. Human intervention in natural processes increases vulnerability
by:
• Development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards, for example, building
on floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides, coastlines subject
to hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to volcanic eruptions.
• Increasing the severity or frequency of a natural hazard. For example: overgrazing
or deforestation leading to more severe erosion; mining groundwater leading to
subsidence; construction of roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides. 305
Natural Hazards • Reducing the mitigating effect of natural ecosystems. For example, destruction of
coral reefs removes the first line of defenceof shores against ocean currents and
storm surges.
These are some examples of human interventions that reduce the ability of ecosystems
to protect the population.
Human response: This can be done by prediction and warning. Preparedness, public
awareness and education, emergency services provision, proper land use planning are
all important factors. Further preparedness with aid and insurance is also a must. For
example, in case of volcanic eruptions, they can be predicted, and people can be warned
to evacuate and move to safer places. Prediction of events using hazard mapping, analysing
seismic shockwave patterns, gas and lava emissions, and changes in topography can be
useful for predicting events and protecting the masses. One example is the prediction of
volcanic eruption at Popocatepetl, Mexico in the year 2000. The seismic shock waves
alerted the scientists, and the local people were warned and evacuated within 24 hours.
In the same way, in earthquake prone areas hazard resistant designs and the use of
construction materials resistant to earthquakes can be used.

13.10 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was declared by the
United Nations in the year 1990’s.The primary goal was to reduce the loss of life,
property, socio-economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, droughts, locust infestations, and other
disasters of natural origin. In 1994, the Yokohama conference put socio-economic
aspects as component of effective disaster prevention into perspective. A global strategy
aiming at reducing the impacts of natural hazards therefore must include the development
of national and sub-national mechanisms for disaster risk reduction. Within this context
the IDNDR advised the UN-member states to establish National Platforms which
would facilitate the adjustment of general disaster risk reduction objectives to national/
local conditions and implement the agreed policies and expand the understanding and
perception of the importance of disaster risk reduction on national levels. The
(International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) ISDR aims to push the initiatives and
cooperation agreed on during the IDNDR and developing new mechanisms as well as
ensuring for further commitments from policymakers. The goal is to reduce human,
social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards.

13.10.1 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

The Sendai Framework was endorsed by the UN General Assembly for Disaster
Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The Sendai Framework was adopted on 18thMarch
2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai City,
Japan. The Sendai Framework is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement. It is
the first major agreement of the post 2015 development agenda. Seven targets are
identified, and four priorities are listed for action. This framework recognizes that the
State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk. It also states that the responsibility
should be shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector
and other stakeholders. The goal of this framework is the substantial reduction of
disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health. It also aims to reduce disaster
risks including the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of
306 persons, businesses, communities and countries.
Hazardous earth processes differ in dimensions. The assessment of hazards and risks Introduction to
is the first step and the response to different hazards requires adopting different Natural Hazards
strategies. Also,education and policies play a fundamental role in influencing the impact
of natural disasters.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the economic impacts of disasters with examples.
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.....................................................................................................................
2. Describe impact assessment of hazards.
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3. Explain the significance of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction’.
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13.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about an introduction to natural hazards, their types, effects,
impacts, vulnerability, human intervention, and an overview of assessing hazards. The
effects of urbanization and increasing population growth and density have led to a
higher potential exposure to natural hazards. Natural hazards vary in dimensions.
Assessing hazards and risks is the first important step and the response to different
hazards requires adopting different strategies. Further, policies play a fundamental role
in influencing the impact of natural disasters.

13.12 KEYWORDS
Earth processes: They are natural events that occur within the lithosphere, hydrosphere
or atmosphere.
Hazard: It can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and risk as
the probability of hazard occurrence.
Hazard Assessment: It is also referred to as Hazard Evaluation or Hazard Analysis
(UNDRO, 1991). It is the process of estimating the probabilities of the occurrence of
potentially damagingevents of a given magnitude within a specified period of time.
307
Natural Hazards IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
ISDR: International strategy for disaster reduction.

13.13 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2009. Natural Disasters. Unicorn books, Pustak Mahal,
India. 159p.
Bryant, E. 2005. Natural Hazards. 2nd Edition, Cambridge university press, 330p.
Burton, I. And Kates, R.W. 1964. The perception of natural hazards in resource
management, Natural Resources Journal 3, 412-41.
Burton, I., Kates, R.W., and White, G.F. 1978. The Environment as Hazard New
York: Oxford University Press.
Burton, I.; Kates, R.W.; White, G.F. 1993. The environment as hazard. Guilford
Press. ISBN 9780898621594.
Gill, Joel C.; Malamud, Bruce D. 2014. “Reviewing and visualizing the interactions of
natural hazards”. Reviews of Geophysics. 52 (4): 680–722.
Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. 1971. The Hazardousness of a Place: A Regional Ecology
of Damage Events, University of Toronto.
Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th Edition, Pearson publication, 624 p.
Sparks, R.E. 1996. Ecosystem effects: positive and negative outcomes. Pp. 132–162
in The Great Flood of 1993. S. Changnon, ed. Boulder, Colo.:Westview Press.
United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. 1991. Mitigating Natural Disasters:
Phenomena, Effects and Options: A Manual for Policy makers and Planners. New
York: United Nations.

13.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and risk
as the probability of hazard occurrence.Hazard can also be defined as: “Those
elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces
extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has the potential to cause
harm to People, human activity, property, environment.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Natural hazards
• Quasi-natural hazards
• Technological hazards
308
 • Secondary hazards Introduction to
Natural Hazards
• Chronic hazards
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Natural hazards
• Case studyof an earthquake - impacts on people and property.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
2. Economic impacts
3. Examples
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Hazard assessment
• Risk assessment
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• The Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction
• Key points
• Significance.

309