ABSTRACT

Clean quality foods are very good for the

body and it is the basis for the human
digestive process to be done properly and
a good energy metabolism process in the
human body.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE W.M.R.Subhashini
Bachelor of Education in Bio Systems Technology

SYSTEM &
ENERGY
METABOLISM
- Fundamentals of Human Nutrition -
UNIVERSITY OF VOCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
RATHMALANA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN TECHNOLOGY
Fundamentals of Human Nutrition.

Assignment-Booklet
Resource Person: Ms.Lakmini Bhagya.

Name - W. M. R. Subhashini
Registration Number - BED/21/B1/36
Stream - Bio Systems Technology
Issue Date - 15.05.2023
Submission Date - 23.05.2023

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 CONTENT
Introduction - 3

Human digestive system

- What is the digestive system? - 4-5
- Four main layers of the GI tract wall - 5-6
- Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System - 7-9
- Accessory organs - 10-11

How it works ( human digestive system ) - 11-12

Energy metabolism
- What is metabolism - 12-16
- Carbohydrates metabolism - 16-18
- Protein metabolism - 19-20
- Lipids metabolism - 21

Summary - 22
Reference list - 23
Thank you page - 24

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 Introduction

The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process food into
molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. Food is broken down, bit by bit,
until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed and the waste products are eliminated.
Its diagrams, parts, and how it works will be explained in the next chapters.

Energy metabolism is the process of generating energy (i.e. ATP) from nutrients. This process is
indispensable for cell homeostasis maintenance and responses to varying conditions. Cells require
energy for growth and maintenance and have evolved to have multiple pathways to produce
energy.
➢ Carbohydrate metabolism
➢ Protein metabolism
➢ Lipid metabolism

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. HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM**************- What is the digestive system?

The organs take in food and liquids and break them down into substances that the body can use for energy, growth,
and tissue repair. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive
system includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
It also includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, which make digestive juices and enzymes that
help the body digest food and liquids. Also called the gastrointestinal system.
The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract also called the digestive tract and the liver,
pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine which includes the rectum and anus. Food enters the mouth and passes to the anus through the hollow

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organs of the GI tract. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system. The digestive
system helps the body digest food. Bacteria in the GI tract, also called gut flora or microbiome, help with digestion.
Parts of the nervous and circulatory systems also play roles in the digestive process. Together, a combination of
nerves, hormones, bacteria, blood, and the organs of the digestive system completes the complex task of digesting
the foods and liquids a person consumes each day.

Now let's see what are the four main layers of the GI tract wall

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➢ Mucosa
Created from mucosal epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae
-Rugae: stomach
-Villi: Intestine

➢ Submuscosa
Connective tissue contains the submucosal plexus of the enteric nervous system.

➢ Muscularis Externa
Consists of 2 layers of smooth muscle. Contains the myenteric plexus of the enteric nervous system.
-(Oblique muscle also in ONLY stomach)
-Circular: constrict the diameter
-Longitudinal: shortens the length

➢ Serosa
Continuation of the peritoneal membrane, which forms sheets of the mesentery

Anyone who looks at these clear images can clearly understand the four layers.

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 ➢ There are two main areas of the digestive system. -

Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: the
alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum , and anus. Associated with the
alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

1. Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System……..

➢ Mouth

The mouth,
or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food by ingestion, breaking it into small
particles by mastication, and mix it with saliva. The lips, cheeks, and palate form the boundaries. The oral cavity
contains the teeth and tongue and receives the secretions from the salivary glands.

Lips and Cheeks

The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are also used in the formation
of words for speech. The lips contain numerous sensory receptors that are useful for judging the temperature and
texture of foods.

Palate
The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The anterior portion,
the hard palate, is supported by bone. The posterior portion, the soft palate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue.
Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a projection called the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move
upward to direct food away from the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.

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Tongue
The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The surface is covered with papillae that provide
friction and contain the taste buds.

Teeth
A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32 teeth in a complete permanent
(secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the way it handles food.

Incisors - our incisors are eight teeth in the front center of our mouth
(four on both the bottom and top). These are typically the first adult
teeth that a child will get, coming in when the child is between six and
eight years old. Incisors are the teeth that we use to bite into our food.
Canines - our canines are the next teeth that develop in your mouth.
we have four of them and they are our sharpest teeth, used for tearing
apart food.
Premolars - Premolars are used for tearing and crushing food. Unlike
our incisors and canines, premolars have a flat biting surface. We have eight premolars in total.
Molars - our molars are your largest teeth. Their function is similar to that of the premolars, to grind, tear,
and crush food. Molars have a large flat biting surface which makes them perfect for this job.

➢ Pharynx & Esophagus

Pharynx
Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When food reaches the opening, sensory receptors around the fauces
respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing reflex. This reflex action has several parts. The uvula is elevated to
prevent food from entering the nasopharynx. The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from entering
the larynx and trachea in order to direct the food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements propel the food from the
pharynx into the esophagus.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the pharynx and stomach. As it
descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It passes through an opening in the
diaphragm, called the esophageal hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The mucosa has glands that
secrete mucus to keep the lining moist and well lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower esophageal
sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes
called the cardiac sphincter and resides at the esophagogastric junction.

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 ➢ Stomach
The stomach, which receives food from the esophagus, is
located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen. The
stomach is divided into the fundic, cardiac, body, and
pyloric regions. The lesser and greater curvatures are on
the right and left sides, respectively, of the stomach.

Gastric Secretions
The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with numerous tubular gastric glands. The gastric
glands open to the surface of the mucosa through tiny holes called gastric pits. Four different types of cells make up
the gastric glands:

• Mucous cells
• Parietal cells
• Chief cells
• Endocrine cells
The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands - composed of the mucous, parietal, and chief cells - make up the
gastric juice. The products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are not a part of the
gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete the hormone gastrin, which functions in the regulation of gastric activity.

➢ Small and large intestine

The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties into the large
intestine. The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the nutrients, and passes the residue on to
the large intestine. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system that are
closely associated with the small intestine.The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
small intestine follows the general structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a mucosa with simple
columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with inner circular and outer longitudinal layers, and serosa. The
absorptive surface area of the small intestine is increased by plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli.Exocrine cells in
the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase, maltase, lactase, lipase, and
enterokinase. Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.

The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the presence of chyme. This is largely a
local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of
the intestinal wall. This is a direct reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion.

Large Intestine
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal junction, where the ileum
enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large intestine consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.The
wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts of the digestive tract but there
are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has a large number of goblet cells but does not have any villi.

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The longitudinal muscle layer, although present, is incomplete. The longitudinal muscle is limited to three distinct
bands, called teniae coli, that run the entire length of the colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts pressure on the
wall and creates a series of pouches, called haustra, along the colon. Epiploic appendages, pieces of fat-
filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface of the colon.Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine
produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the
large intestine. Functions of the large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and the elimination
of feces.

2. Accessory organs………..
The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but they have a role in
digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.

Salivary Glands
Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and numerous smaller ones
secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus,
and enzyme amylase. Functions of saliva include the following:

• It has a cleansing action on the teeth.

• It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.
• It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
• It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase, which breaks down
polysaccharides into disaccharides.

Liver
The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the abdomen, just beneath the
diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the surface, the liver is divided into two major lobes and two
smaller lobes. The functional units of the liver are lobules with sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to
the central vein of the lobule.The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the
liver by the common hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta. Blood that is rich in
nutrients from the digestive tract is carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.The liver has a wide variety of
functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform most of the functions attributed to the liver, but
the phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the blood.

Liver functions include the following:

• secretion
• synthesis of bile salts
• synthesis of plasma protein
• storage
• detoxification
• excretion

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 • carbohyrate metabolism
• lipid metabolism
• protein metabolism
• filtering

Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by the cystic duct. The
principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir for bile. Bile is a yellowish-green fluid
produced by liver cells. The main components of bile are water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.Bile salts
act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol and bile pigments from the breakdown
of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the bile.

Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion consists of the scattered islets of
Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood. The exocrine portion is the major part
of the gland. It consists of pancreatic acinar cells that secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven between
the cells. Pancreatic enzymes include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions are controlled by
the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.

- how it work ( human digestive system ) ? –

All over the planet, people eat an average of 1 to 2.7 kilograms of food per day. That's more than 365 kg per person
per year and more than 28,800 kg over a lifetime. And every last scrap goes through the digestive system. Consisting
of 10 organs covering 9 meters and containing more than 20 specialized cell types, it is one of the most diverse and
complex systems in the human body. The parts of your food continuously work together to perform a unified function,
converting the ingredients into nutrients and energy. Spanning the entire length of your body, the digestive system
consists of four main parts to keep you alive. First, the gastrointestinal tract, the digestive tract that transports your
food, has an internal surface of 30 to 40 square meters, enough to cover half a badminton court. Second, the
pancreas, gall bladder and liver, a tree of organs. Breaking down food using a series of special juices. Third, the
body's enzymes, hormones, nerves, and blood work together to break down food, alter the digestive process, and
deliver its end products. Finally, there's the mesentery, a mass of tissue that supports and positions all of your
digestive organs so they can do their jobs. Digestion begins before food hits your tongue. Anticipating a tasty morsel,
the glands in your mouth start pumping. We produce about 1.5 liters of this liquid per day. Once inside your mouth,
chewing saliva combines with saliva to turn food into a moist lump bolus enzymes, saliva breaks down any starches,
so your food appears on the 25 cm long rim. Stomach, to reach nerves. In the surrounding esophageal tissue, the
presence of a bolus is sensed and triggers peristalsis, a series of defined muscle contractions that propel the
remaining food into the stomach on the sympathetic stomach wall. Hormones secreted by the cells of the mucous
membrane cause the stomach wall to release acid and enzyme-rich juices that begin to dissolve food and break
down its proteins. These hormones alert the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder to produce digestive juices. And in
preparation for the next stage, file a yellow-green liquid that digests fat. After three hours in the stomach, the once-
shaped bolus is now a foamy liquid called chyme, ready to move into the small intestine. The liver sends bile to the
gallbladder, which is secreted into the first part of the small intestine. duodenum.Here it dissolves the fats floating in

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some kind of manure so that they can be easily digested by the pancreatic and intestinal juices that have leaked into
the vision. This enzyme-rich juice breaks down fat molecules into fatty acids and glycerol, which are easily absorbed
by the body. Enzymes also carry out the final breakdown of proteins. Amino acids and carbohydrates, into glucose.
This occurs in the small intestine, lower regions, jejunum and ileum, which are encoded by millions of tiny
projections called villi. These create a large surface area to maximize absorption and transfer of molecules into the
bloodstream. Blood takes them on the last leg of their journey to nourish the body's organs and tissues, but it's not
over yet. Fiber, water, and dead cells left over from digestion make up the large intestine, also known as the colon.
The body expels most of the remaining fluid through the intestinal wall. What remains is a soft mask called the chair.
The nerves sense that this byproduct of the colon is being squeezed into a pouch and expands, telling the body when
it's time to excrete waste. The byproducts of digestion are passed out through the anus, and the long journey of food,
which usually lasts 30 to 40 hours, is completed at the end.

ENERGY METABOLISM*******************

What is metabolism?

Metabolism (pronounced: meh-TAB-uh-liz-um) is the chemical reactions in the body's cells that change food into
energy. Our bodies need this energy to do everything from moving to thinking to growing.

Specific proteins in the body control the chemical reactions of metabolism. Thousands of metabolic reactions happen
at the same time — all regulated by the body — to keep our cells healthy and working.

How Does Metabolism Work?

After we eat food, the digestive system uses enzymes to:

• break proteins down into amino acids

• turn fats into fatty acids

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 • turn carbohydrates into simple sugars (for example, glucose)

The body can use sugar, amino acids, and fatty acids as energy sources when needed. These compounds are
absorbed into the blood, which carries them to the cells.

After they enter the cells, other enzymes act to speed up or regulate the chemical reactions involved with
"metabolizing" these compounds. During these processes, the energy from these compounds can be released for use
by the body or stored in body tissues, especially the liver, muscles, and body fat.

Now let's see how to control the metabolism, with example,

Several hormones of the endocrine system help control the rate and direction of metabolism. Thyroxine, a hormone
made and released by the thyroid gland, plays a key role in determining how fast or slow the chemical reactions of
metabolism go in a person's body.

Another gland, the pancreas, secretes hormones that help determine whether the body's main metabolic activity at
any one time are anabolic (pronounced: an-uh-BOL-ik) or catabolic (pronounced: kat-uh-BOL-ik). For example, more
anabolic activity usually happens after you eat a meal. That's because eating increases the blood's level
of glucose — the body's most important fuel. The pancreas senses this increased glucose level and releases the
hormone insulin, which signals cells to increase their anabolic activities.

Metabolism is a complicated chemical process. So it's not surprising that many people think of it in its simplest
sense: as something that influences how easily our bodies gain or lose weight. That's where calories come in. A
calorie is a unit that measures how much energy a particular food provides to the body. A chocolate bar has more
calories than an apple, so it provides the body with more energy — and sometimes that can be too much of a good
thing. Just as a car stores gas in the gas tank until it is needed to fuel the engine, the body stores calories —
primarily as fat. If you overfill a car's gas tank, it spills over onto the pavement. Likewise, if a person eats too many
calories, they "spill over" in the form of excess body fat.

The number of calories someone burns in a day is affected by how much that person exercises, the amount of fat
and muscle in his or her body, and the person's basal metabolic rate (BMR). BMR is a measure of the rate at which a
person's body "burns" energy, in the form of calories, while at rest.

The BMR can play a role in a person's tendency to gain weight. For example, someone with a low BMR (who therefore
burns fewer calories while at rest or sleeping) will tend to gain more pounds of body fat over time than a similar-
sized person with an average BMR who eats the same amount of food and gets the same amount of exercise.

BMR can be affected by a person's genes and by some health problems. It's also influenced by body composition —
people with more muscle and less fat generally have higher BMRs. But people can change their BMR in certain ways.

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For example, a person who exercises more not only burns more calories, but becomes more physically fit, which

increases his or her BMR.

Two Kinds of Metabolic Reactions:

1. Catabolism = breakdown of large molecules into simple ones to produce energy. (release energy)

2. Anabolism = build large molecules from simple molecules. (requires energy input)

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 Through metabolic processes, ATP becomes hydrolyzed into ADP, or further to AMP,
and free inorganic phosphate groups. The process of ATP hydrolysis to ADP is
energetically favorable, yielding Gibbs-free energy of -7.3 cal/mol. ATP must
continuously undergo replenishment to fuel the ever-working cell.
The body is a complex organism, and as such, it takes energy to maintain proper functioning. Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level. The structure of ATP is a nucleoside
triphosphate, consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a ribose sugar, and three serially bonded phosphate
groups. ATP is commonly referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell, as it provides readily releasable energy in
the bond between the second and third phosphate groups. In addition to providing energy, the breakdown of ATP
through hydrolysis serves a broad range of cell functions, including signaling and DNA/RNA synthesis. ATP synthesis
utilizes energy obtained from multiple catabolic mechanisms, including cellular respiration, beta-oxidation, and
ketosis.
The majority of ATP synthesis occurs in cellular respiration within the mitochondrial matrix: generating
approximately thirty-two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose that is oxidized. ATP is consumed for energy in
processes including ion transport, muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, substrate phosphorylation, and
chemical synthesis. These processes, as well as others, create a high demand for ATP. As a result, cells within the

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human body depend upon the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP per day to ensure proper functioning. In the
forthcoming sections, ATP will undergo further evaluation of its role as a crucial molecule in the daily functioning of
the cell.

Carbohidrate Metabolism-

Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process that ensures a constant supply of

energy to living cells. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, which can be broken down via
glycolysis, enter into the Kreb's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.

The breakdown (catabolism) and synthesis (anabolism) of carbohydrate molecules represent the
primary means for the human body to store and utilize energy and to provide building blocks for
molecules such as nucleotides). The enzyme reactions that form the metabolic pathways for
monosaccharide carbohydrates include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation as the main means to produce the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway represent the two main anabolic
pathways to produce new carbohydrate molecules. Glycogen has its own metabolic pathway for
lengthening, shortening, and/or adding branch points in the carbohydrate chain(s). Not
surprisingly, all of these processes are highly regulated at multiple points to allow the human
body to efficiently utilize these important biomolecules. Finally, many modified carbohydrates are
part of a variety of surface and cytosolic signaling molecules, including glycoproteins and
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) These important carbohydrate molecules and the control points in
carbohydrate and glycoprotein metabolism, therefore, present clinicians with opportunities to
modify these many reactions to improve health or to fight disease.

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 Overview of Carbohydrate
Metabolism. Glucose from
the diet can be
metabolized via glycolysis
or glycogenesis. Resulting
metabolic products can
return to glucose via
gluconeogenesis or
glycogenolysis,
respectively, or proceed
further along
carbohydrate metabolism
to the citric acid cycle.
Alternatively, glucose
products can be shunted
off to fat or amino acid
metabolism as indicated.
-

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GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down (catabolism) hexose (six-carbon) monosaccharides such as
glucose, fructose, and galactose into two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, two molecules of NADH, two
water (H2O) molecules, and two hydrogen ions (H+) (.Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-mediated steps and is best
envisioned in two phases—phosphorylation and energy production—all of which occur in the cytoplasm. The
phosphorylation phase (sometimes referred to as the preparatory phase) starts with the six-carbon carbohydrate
glucose and involves two phosphorylations from ATP and the cleavage into two molecules of the triose (three-carbon
sugar) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. The energy production phase involves the next five steps during which the two
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are converted to two pyruvate molecules with the production of two NADH
molecules and four ATP molecules. Glucose-6-phosphate, the first intermediate of glycolysis, cannot exit the cell-
like glucose, so it also traps the glucose molecule in the cell for energy production via glycolysis or glycogen
synthesis (see below). NADH represents an alternative energy storage form than ATP, which may be utilized by
the oxidative phosphorylation pathway.

Protein metabolism-
Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino
acids (anabolism), and the breakdown of proteins by catabolism.
The steps of protein synthesis include transcription, translation, and post translational modifications. During
transcription, RNA polymerase transcribes a coding region of the DNA in a cell producing a sequence of RNA,
specifically messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA sequence contains codons: 3 nucleotide long segments that code for
a specific amino acid. Ribosomes translate the codons to their respective amino acids. In humans, non-essential
amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in major metabolic pathways such as the Citric Acid Cycle. Essential
amino acids must be consumed and are made in other organisms. The amino acids are joined by peptide bonds
making a polypeptide chain. This polypeptide chain then goes through post translational modifications and is
sometimes joined with other polypeptide chains to form a fully functional protein.
Dietary proteins are first broken down to individual amino acids by various enzymes and hydrochloric acid present in
the gastrointestinal tract. These amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream to be transported to the liver and
onward to the rest of the body. Absorbed amino acids are typically used to create functional proteins, but may also
be used to create energy. They can also be converted into glucose. This glucose can then be converted to
triglycerides and stored in fat cells.
Proteins can be broken down by enzymes known as peptidases or can break down as a result of denaturation.
Proteins can denature in environmental conditions the protein is not made for.

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Lipid metabolism-

Lipid metabolism is the process that most of the fat ingested by the body is emulsified into small particles by bile
and then the lipase secreted by the pancreas and small intestine hydrolyzes the fatty acids in the fat into free fatty
acids and monoglycerides. A small amount of fatty acids is completely hydrolyzed into glycerol and fatty acids. After
hydrolysis these small molecules, such as glycerol, short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids, are absorbed into the
blood by the small intestine. After the absorption of monoglycerides and long-chain fatty acids, triglycerides will be
re-synthesized in small intestinal cells and along with phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicron
which will enter the blood circulation from the lymphatic system. The liver and pancreas are important sites for lipid
metabolism and play an important role in the process of lipid digestion, absorption, synthesis, decomposition and
transport.

Lipids are a general term for fats and lipoids and their derivatives (Fat is triglyceride, also known as triacylglycerol
(TG); lipoids include phospholipids (PL), glycolipids; cholesterol (Ch) includes free cholesterol (FC) and cholesterol
ester (CE). In normal people, the amount of lipids accounts for 25% of body weight, and most of them are stored in
adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides, which are variable lipids. Lipoid is the basic structure of the tissue, called
basic or fixed fat, accounting for 5% of the total lipid content. The lipids present in various tissues are body fats, and
the body fat stores huge energy. When the body heat is insufficient, body fat can be used for energy consumption. A
small number of lipids present in the blood circulation are blood lipids which are mainly phospholipids, triglycerides,
cholesterol, free fatty acids, and trace amounts of fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones. Free fatty acids are
mainly decomposed by TG in body fat and then enter the blood circulation.

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 In this way, the metabolism of carbohydrates,
protein and lipids is very clear.

20
 Summary
First the human digestive system and how it works, and
secondly
Energy metabolism and the ways in which it occurs are well illustrated by diagrammatic flow
charts.

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 REFERENCE LIST
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/digestive/

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/digestive-
system

https://guides.hostos.cuny.edu/bio140/5-
16#:~:text=Figure%202%3A%20The%20digestive%20processes,for%20exampl
e%2C%20alcohol%20and%20aspirin

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_digestive_system

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/#:~:text=Through%20metaboli
c%20processes%2C%20ATP%20becomes,fuel%20the%20ever%2Dworking%20
cell

https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2355&sectionid=1
85844537

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 Thank you!
I am very thankful to MS.Lakmini Bhagya for her guidance in making this
book and thank you to everyone who helped me in any way.

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