RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
the passageway of air.
Respiratory system is responsible for the CO2 and
O2 exchange in the body. CO2 dictates the rate of
respiration.
A. Anatomy of Respiratory System
1. Upper Respiratory Tract
a. Nasal Cavities
 Nasal Vestibule
- Located at the anteriormost region of the
nasal cavity with an opening called nostrils,
which are lined with skin containing hairs
and vibrissae that trap impurities.
- With alar cartilage to ensure that the nostrils
are open for the passageway of air.
- With dilator nares, a muscle that dilates the
nostrils and prevents it from collapsing.
 Respiratory Area Proper
- Posterior to the nasal cavity.
 Respiratory epithelium
- Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium with cilia for mucus transport.
- Also with non-ciliated cells called goblet
cells for mucus secretion that traps minute
particles.
 Lamina propria
- Loose connective tissue with serous glands
that secretes less-viscous secretions for
facilitating the mucus transport by reducing
the contact between the mucus and the
epithelial cells.
 Nasal conchae
- Projections of the nasal cavity for slowing
down air movement, giving time for the air
to warm, moisten, and trap impurities by the
respiratory area proper.
 Abundant capillaries
- In contact with the environment, responsible
for releasing heat, warming and moistening
the inhaled air. Also prevents the capillaries
from vasoconstriction and prevents the
alveoli from collapsing.
- Moistening the air facilitates in gas
exchange and helps in conserving water
since humans are terrestrial animals.
 Olfactory Epithelium
- Located at the roof of the nasal cavity.
- Mainly sensory in function, with sensory cells
and olfactory receptors.
b. Nasopharynx
- There is only one nasopharynx.
- Lined with respiratory epithelium, and with
goblet cells for mucus secretion.
- Connects the nasal cavity to the pharynx for
c. Larynx
- Also known as the voice box, with vocal
cord.
 Glottis + Epiglottis
- Glottis is the opening. Epiglottis is the flap
that covers the glottis.
 Laryngeal Cavities
 Supraglottic Space
- Upper space, also known as the vestibule.
 Infraglottic Space
- Lower space.
 Ventricle
- The narrow cavity between supraglottic
space and infraglottic space.
 Laryngeal Folds
 Vestibular Folds
- Upper portion, the false vocal cord.
 Vocal Cord
- Lower portion, the true vocal cord.
- With skeletal muscle called vocalis muscle.
- With vocal ligament containing elastic fibers
for the vibration of the vocal cord.
- Laryngitis is due to the overuse of the vocal
cords, causing inflammation.
d. Paranasal Sinuses
- Makes the skull lightweight. Located beside
nasal cavities.
- Includes the frontal, ethmoid, maxillary, and
sphenoid sinuses. Lined with ciliated
columnar epithelium with goblet cells that
secretes mucus and capillaries that warms
the inhaled air.
- Serous glands are absent, making it difficult
for the mucus to be removed and tends to
harden during cold temperatures, causing
sinusitis.
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2. Lower Respiratory Tract 2. Atmospheric Pressure (760 mmHg)
a. Conducting Portion
 Trachea and Extrapulmonary Bronchi (Primary
Bronchi)
- Located outside the lungs. Lined with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium with goblet cells.
- With ventral C-shaped hyaline cartilages for
structural support, keeping it open and
prevents it from collapsing.
- With smooth muscles for muscular
contraction, expelling foreign particles.
 Intrapulmonary Bronchi
- Secondary and tertiary bronchi, located a. Inhalation
inside the lungs. With lesser cartilage, - Increase in volume and decrease in
appear as plates or patches of cartilages. pressure. Pressure outside (atmosphere; 760
Lined with low columnar epithelium. mmHg) is greater than inside (lungs; 757
 Bronchioles mmHg). Air moves from a region of high
- Less cartilage, lined with cuboidal pressure (outside) to a region of low pressure
epithelium. (inside), inhaling the air. Inhalation stops
 Terminal Bronchiole when the pressures are equal.
- No cartilage, lined with low cuboidal b. Exhalation
epithelium. - Decrease in volume and increase in
b. Respiratory Portion pressure. Pressure inside (lungs; 763 mmHg) is
 Respiratory Bronchiole greater than outside (atmosphere; 760
-
Gives rise to evaginations. mmHg). Air moves from a region of high
Alveolar Duct
 pressure (inside) to a region of low pressure
Alveolar Sac
 (outside), exhaling the air. Exhalation stops
 Alveolus when the pressures are equal.
- Actual site for gas exchange. 3. Pulmonary Pressure
B. Physiology of Respiratory System - Outer parietal pleura.
1. Mechanism of Breathing - Inner visceral pleura.
- Pleural cavity in between.
a. Inhalation (Inspiration)
 Normal Inhalation
- Contraction of the external intercostal
muscles of the 10th rib and diaphragm.
 Forceful Inhalation
- In addition, contraction of
sternocleidomastoid to lift the sternum,
scalene to lift the 1st rib or upper rib area,
and external intercostal muscles of the 2nd to
5th rib.
b. Exhalation (Expiration)
 Normal Exhalation
-
Relaxation of the external intercostal
muscles of the 10th rib and diaphragm.
 Forceful Exhalation
- Contraction of the abdominal muscles to lift a. Intrapleural Pressure (756 mmHg)
the diaphragm upwards and internal b. Lung (Intrapulmonary) Pressure (760
intercostal muscles to move the ribs mmHg)
downward.

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 c. Transpulmonary Pressure (-4 mmHg) 5. Mechanism of Gas Exchange
- 756 mmHg – 760 mmHg = -4 mmHg a. Pulmonary Gas Exchange
- The negative pressure prevents the lungs
from collapsing and determines the
compliance of the lungs, allowing it to
expand. Compliance refers to the lung’s
ability to expand.
Anything that reduces the ability of the
lungs to expand, reduces the
compliance of the lungs.
4. Lung Volume and Capacities

 Alveolus
-PO2 = 100 mmHg
-PCO2 = 40 mmHg
 Pulmonary Capillary
- PO2 = 40 mmHg
- PCO2 = 45 mmHg
a. Lung Volumes Movement of oxygen, from high (alveolus) to
 Tidal Volume (TV) low (pulmonary capillary).
- 500mL Movement of carbon dioxide, from high
- Amount of air taken in after normal (pulmonary capillary) to low (alveolus).
inhalation. When we inhale 500mL of air, we b. Systemic Gas Exchange
also exhale 500mL of air.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
- 3,100mL
- Volume for forceful inhalation.
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
- 1,200mL
- Volume for forceful exhalation.
 Residual Volume (RV)
- 1,200mL
- Volume of air left in the lung.
Minimal Volume (MV)
- Volume left in an open (sliced) lung.
b. Lung Capacities
- Two or more lung volumes.
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
- TV (500mL) + IRV(3,100mL)  Systemic Cells
- 3,600mL - PO2 = 40 mmHg
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - PCO2 = 45 mmHg
- RV (1,200mL) + ERV (1,200mL)  Systemic Capillary
- 2,400mL - PO2 = 100 mmHg
 Vital Capacity (VC) - PCO2 = 40 mmHg
- IRV (3,100mL) + TV (500mL) + ERV (1,200mL) Movement of oxygen, from high (systemic
- 4,800mL capillary) to low (systemic cell).
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC) Movement of carbon dioxide, from high
- VC (4,800mL) + RV (1,200mL) (systemic cell) to low (systemic capillary).
- 6,000mL

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C. Regulation of Respiration  Pneumotaxic Center
1. Respiratory Control - For shallow and fast breathing.
- Inhibits inspiratory center and activates
expiratory center.
2. Factors Affecting Respiration
a. Hering-Breuer Reflex
- Lungs have stretch receptors that signals the
expiratory center to inhibit inspiratory center
for exhalation.
b. Arterial PCO2
-
Involves chemoreceptors in the medulla
(central) and aorta (peripheral).
 Slight Increase
- Fast respiration, signals pneumotaxic center.

 Decrease
- Slow respiration, signals apneustic center.

c. Arterial pH
 Acidic
- High H+. When CO2 is high, H+ is also high.
Must increase respiratory rate to removed or
decrease H+.

 Alkaline
- Low H+. Must decrease respiratory rate to
increase H+.

d. Arterial PO2
- There is no effect if the PO2 is high, the more
the oxygen, the better.
Decrease

D. Adaptations to Hypoxic Environment

a. Medullary Centers 1. Increased Hemoglobin and RBCs
 Inspiratory Center
2. Increased Respiratory Rate
-Signals the contraction of inspiratory
muscles.
3. Increased Pulmonary Perfusion/Blood
 Expiratory Center Supply
- Inhibits the inspiratory center for the muscles
to relax for exhalation.
b. Pons
 Apneustic Center
- For prolonged inspiration. Deep and shallow
breathing.
- Signals the inspiratory center and inhibits
expiratory center.