PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Plant growth can be defined as the of production of more protoplasm and new cells
which enlarge and differentiate. Differentiation is used to denote a process involved in
the establishment of localized differences in biochemical and metabolic activity and in
structural organization which result into new patterns of growth.

The process of and development of cells into recognized tissues, organs and organisms
is often called development.

Meristematic Tissues

These are tissues in which cells are capable of indefinite division and hence called
regions of cell divisions. They are of three main categories namely; Terminal, lateral and
intercalary meristems.

What is callus tissue? Describe.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ROOTS, LEAVES AND FRUITS

Growth and development of flowers, fruits and seeds

Several processes are involved and the major ones include the following:

 Initiation of flower primordia

 Development and maturation of floral parts
 Development of embryo sac with its enclosed nuclei
 Development of pollen grains
 Flower anthesis (opening of flower with parts available for pollination)
 Growth of pollen tube from stigma through the style into the ovule.
 Formation of two sperm nuclei from generative nucleus in the pollen tube
  Fertilization involving formation of zygote (egg cells and one sperm nuclei)
 Formation of a primary endosperm from fusion of sperm nucleus and two
poplar nuclei
 Development of embryo from the zygote
 Development of endosperm from the primary endosperm
 Development of fruit from tissues that support the ovules
 Fruit ripening

Draw here a diagram of a mature carpel at fertilization

Fruit development is considered to start after anthesis and it is suggested that early
aspects of it are initiated soon after flower induction.
Fruit set: is the transformation of a flower into a fruit.

If the flower is not pollinated, fruits may not develop and the entire flower withers and
falls off the plant.

Parthenocarpy: Normal development of fruits lacking seeds. Parthenocarpic fruit

development can result from either of the following conditions:

 Ovary development without pollination.

  Pollination without fertilization
 Fertilization followed by abortion of embryos.

Factors which influence flowering and fruiting in plants.

These include Climatic, Edaphic and Biotic factors.

Climatic

Rainfall: it is a key factor for flowering and fruiting of several plant species, since
moisture availability is a critical requirement for initiation of flowers and fruits. However,
for some plant species flowering and fruiting are not associated with the prevailing
rainfall.

Temperature: Flowering and fruiting of most tropical plants are not influenced by so
much temperature variations. However,
flowering and fruiting of temperate plants largely depend on the prevailing temperature
conditions. For example, it is reported that Rye is a cereal crop that has two varieties
which, are differently sensitive to temperature variations. The two varieties are Winter
rye and the Spring rye. Winter rye variety is sown in the field in winter at which time. It
germinates and grows up a few leaves. Further growth is checked by the low winter
temperature. When the temperature moderates during spring, the plants resume
growth, they flower and produce a grain crop during summer.

On the other hand, the spring variety is sown in spring at which time it germinates and
immediately proceeds through the vegetative and reproductive stage to give a grain
crop in summer.

If the winter varieties are sown in spring, they germinate but the vegetative growth
period becomes extended and flower initiation does not occur until late in the growing
season. However, if the winter seeds are subjected to chilling temperatures for 5 weeks
and then planted in spring, they will grow and reproduce as spring variety.
The above treatment is known as vernalization. It is the induction of a plant’s flowering
process by exposure prolonged cold of winter, or by an artificial equivalent.

Photoperiodism

Photoperiodism is the influence of the duration of light and dark periods within a 24
hours cycle on flowering of several species of plants. An example is a Maryland
mammoth tobacco variety.
I the tobacco is germinated during winter (a season of short day and long night) in a
green house and the seedlings are allowed to continue growing during early spring,
small plants initiate flowers. This variety of tobacco is referred to as short-day plant.

Some plants species however, remain vegetative if grown under short days but flower
when exposed to long days. These are referred to as long day plants. Day neutral
plants on the other hand are not affected by photoperiods.

Research has established that it is the period of darkness that affects the plants and not
day length which control flowering and other photoperiodic responses. For short day
plants, it is reported that if the day time portion of the photoperiod is interrupted by even
a brief experience of total darkness, there is no effect on flowering. However, if the night
part of the photoperiod is interrupted by a few periods of light, the plant will not flower.
Therefore, short day plants are actually long night plants and long day plants are short
night plants thus photoperiodic responses depend on the critical night length and not the
critical day length.

Short day plants will flower if the duration of darkness is longer than the critical length
and long day plants will flower if the duration of darkness is shorter than the critical
length.
The photochromes (pigments) in the plant detected the quality of light. Photochromes
are proteins which contain a light absorbing protein called a chromophore and can
alternate between two forms which differ only slightly in structure.

One form absorbs red light the other absorbs far red light, the two phytochromomes are
photo-reversible.

Growth and development of roots

In the great majority of species, seed germination begins with the embryonic root
(radicle) which, protrudes through the seed coat and becomes the primary root. The
primary root continues growing and root branches emerge from it. In the more proximal
position of the growing roots are the young cells being formed from the apical meristem.
The root cap protects the apical meristem as it pushes through the soil. The root cap
also secretes a polysaccharide rich slime mucigel over its outer surface that lubricates
the root as it penetrates into the soil.
Cells produced by divisions in the apical meristem develop into the epidermis, the
cortex, endodermis, pericycle, phloem and the xylem.

Briefly describe the following terms:(i) Quiescent Centre in roots (ii) root elongation zone
(iii) the root hair zone.

Formation of lateral roots

Lateral/branch roots generally begin development several millimeters to a few

centimeters proximal to the root tip. They originate in the pericycle growing outwardly
through the cortex and epidermis. In some species the plant hormone, auxin, stimulates
formation of lateral roots, although other hormones may also be involved. Cytokinin
hormones synthesized in or near the root tip apparently retard formation of such roots
near the tip.
The roots of gymnosperms and most dicots develop a vascular cambium from
procambial cells located between the primary xylem and primary phloem near or in the
root hair zone. This cambium is indirectly responsible for mostly increased width of the
roots. Auxin is one of important agents causing activation of these procambial cells into
a vascular cambium.

Most monocots do not form a vascular cambium and the small radial enlargement they
undergo is caused mainly by increases in diameter of non-meristematic cells.

After the vascular cambium initiates secondary growth, a cork cambium (phellogen)
arises in the pericycle this becomes a complete cylinder that forms cork towards the
outside and later some secondary cortex inside.

The epidermis, the original cortex and the endoderm are sloughed off so the mature
root consists of the xylem at the center, the vascular cambium, the phloem, the
secondary cortex, cork, cambium and finally cork cells. Water repellent suberin is
deposited on the cork cell walls.

Growth and development of stems

Stem elongation

The apical meristem of the embryonic shoot gives rise to leaves, branches and floral
parts. In growing stems, cell division occurs in regions much further from the tip than it
occurs in the roots.

In stems, auxins normally promote cell elongation of stems. Certain gibberellins also
stimulate stem growth. The hormones enhance cell division in the apical meristem and
also promote the growth the cells produced.

The differentiation of cells leads to formation of the procambium, protoderm and ground
meristem. The protoderm grows into the epidermis which prevents water loss and
protects the shoots. The procambium gives rise to the primary vascular tissues. The
ground meristem gives rise to the pith and cortex.
Radical growth of stems

Increased stem diameter in gymnosperms and most dicots results from radial expansion
of cells produced by the vascular cambium. Just as in roots, auxins and gibberellins are
apparently involved.

The division of vascular cambium to form the secondary xylem and phloem form
constitutes the secondary growth. As this happens, the primary phloem tissues are
pulled towards the outside and primary xylem tissues are pushed toward the inside of
the stem. The result is that the primary phloem dies out and forms the bark. The primary
xylem pushed inside also dies out and forms the wood heart whose function of water
transport is taken over by the new xylem tissue formed.

Growth of leaves

The earliest sign of leaf development in both gymnosperms and angiosperms usually
consists of divisions in one of the three outermost layers of cells near the surface of the
shoot apex. In the first divisions, a new cell wall established between daughter cells is
always in the plane approximately parallel to the closes surface of the apex. It is said to
be periclinal and if the new cell wall formed is perpendicular to the closed surface, such
as a division is referred to as anticlinal.

Periclinal divisions followed by growth of daughter cells cause a protuberance - the leaf
primordium. The anticlinal division increases the surface area of the primordium. Leaf
primordia are lateral outgrowths that develop from the apical meristem that result into a
leaf.

Leaf primordia do not overlap randomly around the circumference of the shoot apex.
Rather each species usually has a characteristic leaf arrangement (Phyllotaxis) causing
opposite or alternate arrangement of leaves. Subsequent leaf development is highly
variable among species. Continued extension outwardly occurs by both periclinal and
anticlinal divisions at the primordium tips. Later on, when the leaves have attained a
length of only a few millimeters, meristematic activity begins throughout its length. This
activity ceases first at the distal end - at the tip and finally reside at the leaf base.